International Trade Organization Research Articles

MEMAHAMI LIBERALISASI PERDAGANGAN: DAMPAK DAN IMPLIKASINYA DALAM KONTEKS EKONOMI GLOBAL

Trade liberalization is the process of reducing trade barriers between countries, such as tariffs and quotas, with the aim of increasing the flow of goods and services globally. This paper examines the impact and implications of trade liberalization in the global economy, both in terms of advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, liberalization can improve industrial efficiency, expand market access, and encourage economic growth, especially in developing countries. However, on the other hand, trade liberalization can also cause losses for certain sectors, such as local industries that cannot compete with cheaper imported products. This study uses a descriptive qualitative research method, presenting data naturally and in accordance with field conditions. Through this approach, data is processed and analyzed to describe the reality of the phenomenon being studied. In addition, this study is also strengthened by a theoretical basis and literature review to support the research. The main findings show that the impact of trade liberalization is highly dependent on the readiness of policies and economic structures of each country. Developing countries need to adopt policies to protect vulnerable sectors, such as subsidies or workforce training, to maximize the benefits of liberalization. In addition, the role of international trade organizations such as the WTO is also important in overseeing and regulating global trade, despite facing challenges in ensuring compliance and equality between member countries.

PENYAKIT MULUT DAN KUKU DI INDONESIA DANKEBIJAKAN PERDAGANGAN INTERNATIONAL;APA YANG DAPAT DIPELAJARI DARI WABAH TERAKHIR?

The statement letter from the World Health Agency "Office Internationale Des Epizoties (OIE)," started in OIE Resolution Number XI in 1990, has been a new independence for Indonesia to rebuild the livestock and animal health sector. However, the outbreak of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in mid-May 2022 in Indonesia and the Central Asian country of Kazakhstan in early January 2022 proves that the importance of the role and influence of international trade, both formal and informal trade, directly or indirectly on government policies in exporting animals and its products to prevent the spread of FMD disease through commodity trading. In addition, the lack of supervision of trade in animal commodities and animal products from export and import activities will impact the emergence of other new infectious diseases that will occur in the future. Therefore, world health organizations, international trade organizations, and governments must review policies related to international trade to prevent repeated transmission and other new diseases in the future by evaluating the causes of FMD transmission in countries declared free of FMD, such as Indonesia. This paper attempts to analyze this problem through the history of FMD in Indonesia and the FMD-free zone from the perspective of international trade. This paper can provide information and contribute to the future prevention of FMD through international trade in Indonesia.

The automatic termination clause in the Fisheries Subsidies Agreement—brinkmanship for future negotiation or a time bomb for self-destruction?

Abstract The Fisheries Subsidies Agreement (FSA) is an important stride forward, but its future is uncertain because of the embedded automatic termination clause. There is a substantial possibility that this provision comes into effect. It would be prudent to focus on how best to utilize the FSA before that scenario materializes. Most notably, international law jurisprudence and World Trade Organization precedents posit that panels can continue to review disputes and issue decisions even after the FSA is terminated as long as the disputes are brought to them before termination. The automatic termination clause is a unique, unprecedented feature, which may kill the hard-earned momentum of the fisheries subsidies regulation. If managed well, however, the potential damage can be controlled and the new agreement can be utilized for the ultimate success of global fisheries subsidies regulation.

Peran World Trade Organization (WTO) dalam Menyelesaikan Sengketa Dagang Antara Uni Eropa dan Indonesia Terkait Kebijakan Pelarangan Ekspor Mineral Mentah Nikel

The background of this research is the WTO as an international trade organisation under the economic and social council is authorised to regulate international trade as well as resolve international trade disputes. As for nickel as a potential raw mineral material in terms of economic value and a source of world electricity, it then became an issue when Indonesia issued a policy to ban the export of nickel raw minerals. The purpose of this research is to find out the implications of Indonesia's nickel export ban on international trade, and to find out the WTO dispute settlement system in the nickel case between Indonesia and the European Union. This type of research uses descriptive analysis research that describes the results of the author's analysis. The result of this research is that there are 2 (two) types of implications of Indonesia's defeat of the European Union's lawsuit related to the ban on exports of nickel raw materials, namely legal implications which can be in the form of imposing an obligation to pay losses to the plaintiff and non-legal implications, namely disrupting the downstream of nickel mining in Indonesia.

The Consumer Price Index and its Role in Influencing Exports, Food Imports, and the Local Output of the Jordanian Agricultural Sector

Jordan is in the east of Asia, with 91971 km2 of land and water of 329 km2. The study examined the consumer price index as an independent factor and its impact on exports, food imports, and the agricultural sector’s local output as dependent factors in the Jordanian economy. The study took the period from 2006 to 2016 as a sufficient period for measurement, as the agricultural sector is important in the process of economic development, so it was necessary to study the factors affected by the process of changing the price structure represented in the index of the consumer price, as this factor is important in decision-making by businessmen and government alike. To express these variables, statistical measures had to be taken in the analysis, based on finding the simple linear regression of the dependent and independent factor by least squares and testing the estimated equation to avoid measurement errors. The relationship between the different variables influenced by the consumer price index, which the study was taken into, represents the column of this sector of production, export, and import. Under globalization, a country cannot be satisfied with its production and self-sufficiency. Still, there is an external world that carries out open international trade according to each country’s comparative advantage, and we believe that Jordan possesses this comparative advantage in the agricultural sector due to its land and work resources. Still, the circumstances surrounding the rise in prices affect this sector. As for the trade balance and Jordan’s entry into the International Trade Organization, the door has been opened for external work in intra-trade with external knowledge until the price increase affects the exported products’ prices. Imported goods can enter at lower prices, which affects the sector. The study found a strong direct relationship between the consumer price index and the agricultural sector’s domestic product, with the addition of economic justifications for these results and the study reached the results and recommendations, the most important of which was finding direct support for citizens in light of the conditions of rising prices and increasing immigrants.

THE ISSUES OF SCOPE AND LEGAL STATUS IN WTO – IMF CONSULTATIONS

In designing the international economic governance system after the Second World War, trade and finance, due to the close connection between them, were addressed as parts of a whole. A predictable and stable international monetary system was recognized as prerequisite for healthy and sustainable trade. However, these two issues were regulated under different institutional structures, by envisaging close cooperation and coordination. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), designed to be responsible for international finance and monetary issues, was established in 1944. The International Trade Organization (ITO) was designed to address international trade, while the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), with a limited scope, was temporarily put into implementation in January 1, 1948 to provide rapid tariff reductions until the ratification of ITO Charter. The ITO became still-born as it was not approved by national parliaments, especially the USA, and international trade continued to be regulated by the GATT. The GATT, with its unique organizational structure that gradually developed, continued its existence until the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995 and hosted international trade negotiations. WTO, with more advanced legal and institutional structure, took over the functions of the GATT. Formal consultation procedures have constituted an important part of the cooperation between the GATT/WTO and the IMF in the context of the management of international trade and monetary/financial system. These procedures differ from traditional cooperation activities between international organizations and have a special character. It is regulated in a binding language as an obligation for the relevant WTO bodies to apply for consultations with the IMF on certain issues and to comply with the inputs received from the IMF. There are some points open to interpretation regarding the scope of the consultations and the binding and functional status of IMF inputs in the WTO. This study discusses the issues of scope and legal status.

The Evolution and Generation of the History of International Ceramic Trade

The evolution and development of ceramic international trade have been shaped by various factors throughout history. From the ancient civilizations to the modern era, the trade of ceramics has played a significant role in global commerce. Colonialism had a major influence on the patterns and trends of ceramic trade, as European powers established trade routes and monopolies in different regions. The exchange of ceramic products facilitated economic growth and cultural exchange between nations. In the modern context, the trends in ceramic international trade have shifted towards a more globalized and interconnected market. Technological advancements and globalization have led to increased competition and innovation in the ceramic industry. International trade agreements and organizations have also played a role in shaping the dynamics of ceramic trade. Overall, the study of ceramic international trade history provides valuable insights into the interconnection of economies and cultures around the world. By understanding the past trends and developments in ceramic trade, we can better navigate the challenges and opportunities in the global marketplace.

Enforceability of International Economic Law in the Context of National Power Differentials

Under the background of global politicisation and economisation, international trade has become the main mode of communication among countries. With the explosive growth of international trade volume, human society will face trade discrimination and inequality, so human beings have set up the International Trade Organisation (ITO), which supervises the process of international trade and formulates the relevant international economic laws in order to better guarantee the sustainability of the economic cycle and protect the rights and interests of the disadvantaged countries. However, as time goes by, we can see that in reality most developing or third world countries are still unable to defend their legitimate interests and are at a disadvantage in most transactions. So this study will be based on the difference in the strength of the different countries and the structural shortcomings of the Global Trade Organisation. This paper will analyse why disadvantaged countries are still unable to obtain equal opportunities for development in the international community, which now has a more comprehensive legal system.

Oksidentalisme Terhadap Boikot Produk Amerika Serikat: Gagasan Kiri Islam Hasan

Hasan Hanafi is a philosopher who developed Islamic Leftist thought. Through this, he initiated Occidentalism. In this era, the attitude of Occidentalism can be carried out by boycotting American products. It cannot be denied that American products have helped drive national economic growth because the Indonesian population and management of natural resources depend on American products. However, this boycott was carried out in order to develop the national market for more consumption by the Indonesian people. Furthermore, on the one hand, boycotting American products may not be effective because economic relations between Indonesia and the US have been legitimized by regional and international trade organizations. On the other hand, Indonesian people's dependence on consuming US products is still relatively high, as evidenced by the large volume of imports and exports in the two countries. The government's economic policy is influenced by cooperation with other countries so that a boycott will not have an impact on reducing consumption of American products. However, this is worth trying in order to develop domestic products

A Study of Global Trade War and Its Impact on Indian Economy

A Study of Global Trade War and Its Impact on Indian Economy

ВОПРОСЫ ИНФОРМАЦИОННОЙ БЕЗОПАСНОСТИ ЭЛЕКТРОННОЙ КОММЕРЦИИ

E-business is commonly used in English to refer to e-commerce. This word shows the mode, direction and characteristics of e-commerce. The United Nations International Trade Organization defines e–commerce, namely: e-commerce is a business activity based on the Internet, such as the use of web technologies, e-mail, etc., allowing suppliers, customers, etc. Exchange unstructured or structured business information and then make transactions in busi-ness and consumer activities.

Pengaruh Dampak Boikot Produk Amerika Terhadap Perokonomian Indonesia

Plans to boycott American products must take into account the national economy. American products help drive economic growth, because Indonesia's population and management of natural resources depend on American products. Boycott actions suppress economic growth by reducing demand and increasing unemployment. Moreover, on the one hand, this step will have no effect because economic relations between Indonesia and the United States are legalized by regional and international trade organizations. The method used to analyze is a qualitative method.

Deepening the divide: Does globalization increase the polarization between winners and losers of globalization?

Does globalization increase polarization in attitudes toward international trade, immigration, and international organizations? Research from a variety of fields and disciplines assumes this relationship, but empirical studies are few. In this study, I examine whether globalization increases the attitudinal divide between education groups, with education being one of the main characteristics of social stratification distinguishing winners from losers of globalization. I use data from three waves of the National Identity Module of the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) from 1995 to 2013 covering 29 countries (n=79,101) to analyze between- and within-country interactions between the level of globalization and education in explaining attitudes toward globalization. The results show that while the attitudinal divide between educational groups is larger in countries with higher levels of globalization (between effect), polarization decreases as the level of globalization increases within countries (within effect), as persons with lower and medium levels of education become more positive toward globalization under increasing levels of globalization. The results are consistent across a wide range of robustness checks, including controlling for occupational class as a further distinction between winners and losers of globalization. The findings suggest that the expectations about a widening attitudinal divide between winners and losers of globalization should be treated with more caution.

Foot and Mouth Disease in Indonesia and International Trade Policy; What Can Be Learnt from The Recent Outbreak?

The statement letter from the World Health Agency "Office Internationale Des Epizoties (OIE)," started in OIE Resolution Number XI in 1990, has been a new independence for Indonesia to rebuild the livestock and animal health sector. However, the outbreak of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in mid-May 2022 in Indonesia and the Central Asian country of Kazakhstan in early January 2022 proves that the importance of the role and influence of international trade, both formal and informal trade, directly or indirectly on government policies in exporting animals and its products to prevent the spread of FMD disease through commodity trading. In addition, the lack of supervision of trade in animal commodities and animal products from export and import activities will impact the emergence of other new infectious diseases that will occur in the future. Therefore, world health organizations, international trade organizations, and governments must review policies related to international trade to prevent repeated transmission and other new diseases in the future by evaluating the causes of FMD transmission in countries declared free of FMD, such as Indonesia. This paper attempts to analyze this problem through the history of FMD in Indonesia and the FMD-free zone from the perspective of international trade. This paper can provide information and contribute to the future prevention of FMD through international trade in Indonesia.

Reformation of Dispute Settlement Mechanisms for International Trade Organizations: Ensuring Developing Country Interests

Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) are frequently advantageous for developing countries and can help them prepare for future trade opportunities provided by the World Trade Organization (WTO). Developing countries face a dilemma when disputes occur within an RTA; the WTO Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) tends to be too costly and inaccessible, while RTA dispute settlement mechanisms (DSM) tend to be underdeveloped and immature. In order to minimize the cost of dispute resolution and better safeguard the interests of developing nations and regional trade agreements, which are frequently more beneficial to developing countries, this paper describes why and how the WTO should change its dispute settlement procedures. It also argues that these systems should be established to make the WTO's dispute resolution mechanisms more effective.

Undoing the Liberal World Order: Progressive Ideals and Political Realities Since World War II by Leon Fink

Recent history has not been kind to the American Left, as historians like Leon Fink, in Undoing the Liberal World Order: Progressive Ideals and Political Realities Since World War II, have noted. In this book, focused mostly on liberal Democrats, Fink studies the vision of progressive internationalists seeking to forge a world of democracy, abundance, and liberty after World War II. As Fink convincingly argues, they came up short, their idealism dashed by Cold War realism and market conservatism. His is a sobering account, illuminated by case studies that explain how the aspirations of progressives were blocked by politics and diplomatic realities. It is well-known history; Fink sprinkles archival material with largely secondary source research. Yet the book contributes to scholarship because Fink injects class (a category now often passed over for race and gender), labor, social activists, and, indeed, racial movements into the story. Fink certainly understands, but rarely notes, that any success of liberalism after World War II arose because the dominant power, the United States, had shifted into a liberal era that endured into the 1970s. Today, we are shaped by the Reagan Revolution, although the cycle might be turning again after 40 years of neoconservatism that has been buffeted by nationalist populism and leftist critics of globalization. By the way, Fink provides only superficial definitions of liberalism, progressivism, something called “liberal-nationalism” (13), and neoliberalism. The book is also rather selective in its case studies. Why Israel and Costa Rica, but not Guatemala and Iran, both of which witnessed the heavy hand of the national security state at the expense of progressive values? And sometimes Fink is too glum; he does little, for example, with the ill-fated International Trade Organization of the late 1940s except to mention that it had a labor agenda, even though it represented a major first effort by the developing world to assert their interests.

Utjecaj globalnih, regionalnih i kontinentalnih međunarodnih trgovinskih organizacija na ekonomiju i razvoj država

International and regional trade organizations have a significant impact on the economy and development of their member countries. Such organizations promote free trade and strengthen trade relationships between members, which can lead to economic growth, improved competitiveness, and job creation. International trade organizations, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), allow members to resolve trade disputes, protect their trade interests, and strengthen trade rules. This can result in greater stability and predictability in trade relationships between members, ultimately driving economic growth. Regional trade organizations, such as the European Union, North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), or ASEAN, also have a positive impact on the economy and development. They enable members to enter into trade agreements and strengthen trade relationships between members, leading to increased trade exchange and economic growth. However, trade organizations also have negative impacts, such as trade restrictions between members and the strengthening of market dominance by dominant members. It is therefore important to regularly monitor and adjust trade organizations to ensure that their impact on the economy and development is as positive as possible.

Risk-oriented approach to organization of international trade and intellectual resources of production: high technology and intelligent machines against products with reduced risk and digital personnel

Risk-oriented approach to organization of international trade and intellectual resources of production: high technology and intelligent machines against products with reduced risk and digital personnel

Reversing delegation? Politicization, de‐delegation, and non‐majoritarian institutions

AbstractElected governments and states have delegated extensive powers to non‐majoritarian institutions (NMIs) such as independent central banks and regulatory agencies, courts, and international trade and investment organizations, which have become central actors in governance. But, far from having resolved the balance between political control and governing competence or removed certain issues from political debate, NMIs have faced challenges to their legitimacy by elected officials and sometimes attempts to reverse delegation through “de‐delegation”. Our special issue studies the politicization of NMIs, and then whether, why and how it leads to de‐delegation through reducing the formal powers of NMIs or increasing controls over them. In this article, we examine how to analyze de‐delegation, how politicization of NMIs has developed, and how it has affected de‐delegation. We underline not only institutional rules that constrain elected officials but also the actions of NMIs themselves and their relationships with other NMIs as part of multi‐level governance systems. We find that politicization has varied, but even when strong, elected officials have not introduced widespread and long‐lasting de‐delegation; on the contrary, they have frequently widened the powers of NMIs. Insofar as elected politicians have sought to curb NMIs, they have often preferred to use existing controls and non‐compliance. Finally, we consider the wider implications of the combination of politicization and lack of de‐delegation for broader issues of governance such as the division of powers between the elected and unelected and democratic accountability.

Higher Education in China and Russia: Comparative Spiritual and Value Aspect

The article is devoted to the analysis of the cultural foundations of higher education in the Russian Federation and China. Special attention is paid to the implementation of “market reforms” and the modernization of higher education. The author noted that despite the similar form, the transformations of Russian and Chinese education, including in connection with joining the International Trade Organization, have different value content, since in the first case there is a breakdown of values and “Westernization”, and in the second case there is a reliance on tradition and the preservation of the national component. The author makes a conclusion about the key role of the educational aspect and ideology in the higher education of the People’s Republic of China.