International Terminology Research Articles

Investigation into the tendency of international terminology policies and its implications on the Korean language policy

Investigation into the tendency of international terminology policies and its implications on the Korean language policy

Clinical Terminologies in the NHS: SNOMED CT and dm+d

Clinical terminologies are fundamental to the successful recording of clinical data within Electronic Health Record systems and are important in enabling the sharing of data between systems. An overview of the structure and benefits of the international terminology SNOMED CT and the NHS dictionary of medicines and devices (dm+d) are described. Also discussed is a history of clinical terminologies used within the NHS.

Conducto subvesicular, nomenclatura anatómica para el conducto de Luschka y su importancia clínica. Revisión de tema

Introducción: El conducto subvesicular fue descrito por Hubert Luschka como pequeños ductos biliares derivados de la pared de la vesícula biliar. Algunos autores lo describen como un ducto que lleva el drenaje desde el parénquima hepático hasta la vesícula, otros utilizan el término describiéndolo como un conducto que drena desde el parénquima hepático hasta las vías biliares extrahepaticas. Se planteó una revisión bibliográfica de la descripción anatómica del epónimo conducto de Luschka y de la terminología anatómica propuesta conducto subvesicular o subvesical, dada su importancia clínica como causa de fuga biliar. Metodología: Se realizó una revisión bibliográfica en bases de datos y bibliotecas electrónicas. Con ventana de tiempo personalizada desde 2006 hasta 2016, se obtuvo un total de 82 artículos, posteriormente se realizó un resumen analítico especializado, seleccionando un total de 46.Resultados: No se encontró consenso en la descripción anatómica del epónimo, ni en la descripción de la terminología internacional. Las lesiones de la vía biliar durante la colecistectomía se presentan como una complicación poco frecuente (0.1 - 1.5%); sin embargo, tienen repercusiones en varios ámbitos y una morbi-mortalidad considerable. Conclusiones: Se evidenció discrepancia en la nomenclatura utilizada para la descripción de estos conductos, puesto que se denomina de manera indiscriminada como conducto de Luschka a todos los ductos biliares que se encuentran en la fosa biliar. La relevancia clínica radica en que es la segunda causa de fuga biliar iatrogénica y la asociación entre el conducto subvesical y carcinomas ductales. Aún se necesitan más estudios principalmente locales para identificar su incidencia y prevenir complicaciones.

AIMD - a validated, simplified framework of interventions to promote and integrate evidence into health practices, systems, and policies

BackgroundProliferation of terms describing the science of effectively promoting and supporting the use of research evidence in healthcare policy and practice has hampered understanding and development of the field. To address this, an international Terminology Working Group developed and published a simplified framework of interventions to promote and integrate evidence into health practices, systems, and policies. This paper presents results of validation work and a second international workgroup meeting, culminating in the updated AIMD framework [Aims, Ingredients, Mechanism, Delivery].MethodsFramework validity was evaluated against terminology schemas (n = 51); primary studies (n = 37); and reporting guidelines (n = 10). Framework components were independently categorized as fully represented, partly represented, or absent by two researchers. Opportunities to refine the framework were systematically recorded. A meeting of the expanded international Terminology Working Group updated the framework by reviewing and deliberating upon validation findings and refinement proposals.ResultsThere was variation in representativeness of the components across the three types of literature, in particular for the component ‘causal mechanisms’. Analysis of primary studies revealed that representativeness of this concept lowered from 92 to 68% if only explicit, rather than explicit and non-explicit references to causal mechanisms were included.All components were very well represented in reporting guidelines, however the level of description of these was lower than in other types of literature. Twelve opportunities were identified to improve the framework, 9 of which were operationalized at the meeting. The updated AIMD framework comprises four components: (1) Aims: what do you want your intervention to achieve and for whom? (2) Ingredients: what comprises the intervention? (3) Mechanisms: how do you propose the intervention will work? and (4) Delivery: how will you deliver the intervention?ConclusionsThe draft simplified framework was validated with reference to a wide range of relevant literature and improvements have enhanced useability. The AIMD framework could aid in the promotion of evidence into practice, remove barriers to understanding how interventions work, enhance communication of interventions and support knowledge synthesis. Future work needs to focus on developing and testing resources and educational initiatives to optimize use of the AIMD framework in collaboration with relevant end-user groups.

Standardizing the Transmission of Genomic-Related Medical Data for the Optimization of Diagnostics and Research in the Field of Oncological Diseases

Introduction: In Germany, there is currently no consistent analytic structure within genomic diagnostics in oncological diseases. Within the framework of the project GENeALYSE, a standardized and interoperable specification for associated uses cases shall be developed. Intended Methods: Through process analysis and interface modeling, problems of the actual processes will be depicted between the involved actors. In the next step, the workflows and relevant findings will be displayed and adapted. In particular, the heterogeneous workflows in genome diagnostics will be represented by semantic annotation in an international terminology. The results of the semantic annotation build the basement for the creation of an implementation guide for standardized genome analytics, referring to HL7 Clinical Document Architecture (HL7 CDA). Discussion: The problems of heterogeneous genomic diagnostics as well as unstructured findings in oncology leave the actors face comparable challenges on a regional and supranational level. Interfaces, ambiguous semantics and manual activities inhibit interoperability, promote errors and lead to risks for patients and their sufficient medical treatment. A major challenge will be consistency between the heterogeneous terms to be found in genome analysis. The problem shall be addressed via using international terminologies as well as appropriate mapping techniques. Conclusions: The aim of the project is to create an implementation guide for standardized digital documentation and communication solutions between diagnostics, medical therapy and research in the field of genome analysis. GENeALYSE is intended to optimize the coordination between the diagnostic genome laboratory and the clinical therapy decision in order to increase the safety and success of medical treatment, as well as to improve the health-related quality of life of the affected patients.

Anatomical eponyms - unloved names in medical terminology.

Uniform international terminology is a fundamental issue of medicine. Names of various organs or structures have developed since early human history. The first proper anatomical books were written by Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen. For this reason the modern terms originated from Latin or Greek. In a modern time the terminology was improved in particular by Vasalius, Fabricius and Harvey. Presently each known structure has internationally approved term that is explained in anatomical or histological terminology. However, some elements received eponyms, terms that incorporate the surname of the people that usually describe them for the first time or studied them (e.g., circle of Willis, follicle of Graff, fossa of Sylvious, foramen of Monro, Adamkiewicz artery). Literature and historical hero also influenced medical vocabulary (e.g. Achilles tendon and Atlas). According to various scientists, all the eponyms bring colour to medicine, embed medical traditions and culture to our history but lack accuracy, lead of confusion, and hamper scientific discussion. The current article presents a wide list of the anatomical eponyms with their proper anatomical term or description according to international anatomical terminology. However, since different eponyms are used in various countries, the list could be expanded.

Development of International Terminology and Definitions for Texture-Modified Foods and Thickened Fluids Used in Dysphagia Management: The IDDSI Framework

Dysphagia is estimated to affect ~8% of the world’s population (~590 million people). Texture-modified foods and thickened drinks are commonly used to reduce the risks of choking and aspiration. The International Dysphagia Diet Standardisation Initiative (IDDSI) was founded with the goal of developing globally standardized terminology and definitions for texture-modified foods and liquids applicable to individuals with dysphagia of all ages, in all care settings, and all cultures. A multi-professional volunteer committee developed a dysphagia diet framework through systematic review and stakeholder consultation. First, a survey of existing national terminologies and current practice was conducted, receiving 2050 responses from 33 countries. Respondents included individuals with dysphagia; their caregivers; organizations supporting individuals with dysphagia; healthcare professionals; food service providers; researchers; and industry. The results revealed common use of 3–4 levels of food texture (54 different names) and ≥3 levels of liquid thickness (27 different names). Substantial support was expressed for international standardization. Next, a systematic review regarding the impact of food texture and liquid consistency on swallowing was completed. A meeting was then convened to review data from previous phases, and develop a draft framework. A further international stakeholder survey sought feedback to guide framework refinement; 3190 responses were received from 57 countries. The IDDSI Framework (released in November, 2015) involves a continuum of 8 levels (0–7) identified by numbers, text labels, color codes, definitions, and measurement methods. The IDDSI Framework is recommended for implementation throughout the world.

Term-system of the subject area of digital resources: From the viewpoint of theory and practice

Objective preconditions and problems of forming term-system of the subject area of digital information resources are examined. The vocabulary used for describing digital information resources within the contents of the www-sites of RF subjects’ central libraries is assessed. The findings of the analysis of international and RF national terminology standards in the area of digital information resources are introduced.

Die ontwikkeling van Afrikaanse vaktaal: Verlede, hede en toekoms

Die vertrekpunt van vaktaalontwikkeling is die konsepte onderliggend aan 'n bepaalde vakgebied. Unieke, veeltematiese vaktaalprodukte word benodig vir bepaalde teikengebruikersgroepe met spesifieke belange by bepaalde vakgebiede en tale. Vaktaalontwikkeling in Suid-Afrika geskied binne die konteks van die taalbeleid van die regering. Ten spyte van magtigende wetgewing, en ook die nasionale Grondwet, wat die talebestel beskerm en die bevordering van die amptelike tale behoort te bevorder, is dit vir die ander amptelike tale uiters moeilik om aan die hegemonie van Engels te ontkom. Primêre termskepping geskied in Engels, en termekwivalente word deur sekondêre termskepping in Afrikaans en die Afrikatale bygevoeg. Ondanks die bestaan van verskeie koördinerende vaktaalliggame, was en is daar steeds duplisering van vaktaalprojekte. Die mandaat van die nasionale terminologiekantoor verskil van dié van sy voorgangers, en die kantoor gee slegs aandag aan staatsprojekte. Daarbenewens dokumenteer verskeie taalkantore, sentra, uitgewers en individue terminologie, en is fondse deur die Departement van Hoër Onderwys bewillig om 'n veeltalige oop termbank vir hoër onderwys te vestig, aangesien vaktaalontwikkeling vir sowel taal- as vakgerigte departemente by tersiêre instansies belangrik is. n Verskeidenheid van datavasleggingsprogrammatuur word gebruik, en indien hierdie programmatuur versoenbaar is, kan data maklik uitgeruil en gedissemineer word. Data behoort gedigitaliseer en oop te wees vir vrye toegang en algemene gebruik. Indiens- en tersiêre opleiding in die teoretiese en praktiese begronding van terminologie/ terminografie is noodsaaklik. Die kundigheid van akademici, vakkundiges en taalpraktisyns (ook afgetredenes) behoort by vaktaalontwikkeling benut te word om meertalige en veeltematiese terminologie te ontwikkel. Hierdie medewerkers behoort vir hul werk vergoed te word. Sonder vaktaal kan daar nie sprake wees van behoorlike vakkommunikasie nie.

How mutually recognizable is mutual recognition? An international terminology index of research ethics review policies in the USA, Canada, UK and Australia.

Could this Shakespearean adage be true of the policy terms used to describe research ethics review processes based on the principle of mutual recognition? Today, biomedical research is contingent on sharing research data [1–3] often across international borders [4]. This is because of the size of datasets necessary to make scientifically sound links between the human genome and underlying determinants of disease [5]. The degree of collaboration between researchers/research institutions typified in genomics and related ‘omics disciplines’ can therefore pose significant challenges for research ethics review where approval is sought on an institution-byinstitution basis [6]. Policy initiatives and legislation adopted to streamline research ethics review in North America, Europe and Australia are unified in their motivation and philosophy [7–9]. The motivation is that research ethics review processes must complement the collaborative and data-centric nature of biomedical research if they are to enable clinical innovation [10]. The philosophy is the principle of mutual recognition, generally understood to describe an arrangement whereby one research ethics review committee (REC) accepts the processes used to come to decisions of other institutional RECs. The plurality of terms used for policies and models of research ethics review that activate the principle of mutual recognition is the focus of this paper. An index of the terms equivalence, reciprocity, centralization and mutual acceptance from the USA, Canada, UK and Australia, respectively, will be compared. In addition to differences in nomenclature, policies that operationalize mutual recognition between RECs also vary in their degree of legislative formality. Although some policies pursuant to mutual recognition are legislated, not all can be centrally enforced. This is particularly true of countries with federated health systems such as Canada and Australia. The tediousness of the ethics approval process for principal investigators involved in multisite/jurisdictional projects was the primary motivation for reform in these countries, where memoranda of understanding and interinwstitutional agreements are still used to operationalize mutual recognition (see Figure 1).

Review of the Brazilian Guidelines for Cervical Cancer Screening, 2016

It is about to be published the second edition of the Brazilian Guidelines for Cervical Cancer Screening, as part of another publication of the Brazilian National Cancer Institute (Instituto Nacional de Câncer [Inca]). For the development of the document participated the members of the Collaborative Network for Qualification of Diagnosis and Treatment of Precursor Lesions of Cervical Cancer, of which are part: the Health Care Bureau of the Brazilian Ministry of Health, the Inca – National Institute of Cancer, the Brazilian National Institute of Women, Child and Adolescent Health (Instituto Nacional da Saude da Mulher, da Crianca e do Adolescente Fernandes Figueira [Fiocruz]), the Institute of Gynecology of the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ) and the Brazilian Society of Lower Genital Tract Pathology and Colposcopy (Associacao Brasileira de Patologia do Trato Genital Inferior e Colposcopia), the member of the Committee of Experts on Strengthening of Prevention and Qualification actions of Diagnosis and Treatment of Cervical and Breast Cancers (Comite de Especialistas para o Fortalecimento das Acoes de Prevencao e Qualificacao do Diagnostico e Tratamento dos Cânceres do Colo do Utero e de Mama) (both created under Decree no 1.472/GM/MS, from June 24, 2011), and invited experts. They totaled more than 60 professionals directly involved in the women care for prevention and early detection of cervical cancer, including the presidency of the Brazilian Society of Cytopathology (Sociedade Brasileira de Citopatologia) and some of associates. The process involved review, discussion and search for consensus of the theoretical foundation and the recommendations on the first edition, in virtual meetings between August 2, 2013 and June 6, 2014. All meetings may be reviewed by accessing the links on the Guideline itself. The resulting texts were re-discussed and ratified in attendance workshop, held on 4 and 6 August 2014, in Rio de Janeiro, and submitted to public consultation. During the process, the contributions received were incorporated into the final text. Those which suggested using technology non-existing in the Unified Health System (Sistema Unico de Saude [SUS]) were excluded, since they depend on feasibility assessment of incorporation by the Ministry of Health before joining the recommendations for SUS. In its second edition, the Guidelines contain some updates compared to the previous: • the introductory text of each chapter, which presents the rationale for the recommendations was reviewed and updated; • new recommendations were incorporated and some had a clearer written; • flowcharts have been simplified; • a chapter of Complementary Topics was incorporated, in which some situations that can be faced in more than one cytological diagnosis are addressed; • the recommendations for women up to 20 years have been extended to up to 24 years; • the new international colposcopy terminology was used. Soon, the second edition of the Brazilian Guidelines for Cervical Cancer Screening will be published, and at that time we will make full disclosure. While we await the publication, we present in the current number of this journal, a review article that discusses the different screening strategies for cervical cancer that are being used in several countries.

Programmed necrosis and necroptosis - molecular mechanisms

Programmed necrosis has been proven vital for organism development and homeostasis maintenance. Its regulatory effects on functional activity of the immune system, as well as on pathways regulating the death mechanisms in cells with diminished apoptotic activity, including malignant cells, have been confirmed. There is also increasing evidence indicating necrosis involvement in many human pathologies. Contrary to previous beliefs, necrosis is not only a passive, pathological, gene-independent process. However, the current knowledge regarding molecular regulation of programmed necrosis is scarce. In part this is due to the multiplicity and complexity of signaling pathways involved in programmed necrosis, as well as the absence of specific cellular markers identifying this process, but also the ambiguous and imprecise international terminology. This review presents the current state of the art on molecular mechanisms of programmed necrosis. In particular, its specific and frequent form, necroptosis, is discussed. The role of RIP1 and RIP3 kinases in this process is presented, as well as the diverse pathways induced by ligation of tumor necrosis factor α, to its receptor, TNFR1, i.e. cell survival, apoptosis or necroptosis.

Detection of Multidrug Resistant (MDR) and Extremely Drug Resistant (XDR) P. Aeruginosa Isolated from Patients in Tehran, Iran.

This study was done to detect multidrug resistant (MDR) and extremely drug resistant (XDR) of Pseudomonas aeruginosa among strains isolated from patients in Tehran, Iran, due to importance of these phenotypes in treatment of human infections. Eighty eight P. aeruginosa were isolated from patients in Tehran, Iran, and identified by routine methods and PCR for oprL gene. Their antimicrobial susceptibility to 16 antimicrobial agents from 7 antimicrobial categories (aminoglycosides, carbapenems, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, penicillins/ß-lactamase inhibitors, monobactams, polymyxins) were determined by disk diffusion method, according to recommendation of Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Characterization of P. aeruginosa isolates as MDR and XDR was done according to standardized international terminology presented by European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control as well as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2011. MDR was defined as acquired non-susceptibility to at least one agent in ≥3 antimicrobial categories and XDR was defined as non-susceptibility to at least one agent in ≥6 antimicrobial categories. The rates of susceptibility to antimicrobials were as follows: gentamicin 27.3%, tobramycin 54.5%, amikacin 56.8%, netilmicin 36.4%, imipenem 55.7%, meropenem 55.7%, doripenem 60.2%, ceftazidime 63.6%, cefepime 56.8%, ciprofloxacin 59.1%, levofloxacin 60.2%, ticarcillin-clavulanic acid 37.5%, piperacillin-tazobactam 63.6%, aztreonam 43.2%, colistin 90.9%, polymyxin 95.5%. Altogether, 48 (54.5%) and 29 (33%) isolates were characterized as MDR and XDR, respectively. The high frequency of antibiotic resistance in clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa in Iran makes epidemiological surveillance of susceptibility of this bacterium more essential for the best selection of empirical antibiotics.

Changing discourses and changing institutional child substitute care: new terms and processes toward family-like and family-based care

ABSTRACTThis article is an attempt to analyse and describe the process of change in child substitute care that has taken place since the re-independence of Estonia in 1991. These changes started with adopting new terms and ideas. However, while international terminology and concepts have been accepted, local conditions affect this acceptance of concepts as well as their practical development. In the present article, the aim is to look at the process of changing discourse in Estonian institutional substitute care. Overall, it was found that, in the reform of substitute care, the way in which and the extent to which new concepts have been applied through current activities are not enough to achieve internal changes in the development of the substitute care itself. Although family-like care and family-based care have been promoted and applied, the nature of these terms and their place in child substitute care remain dormant. It seems that, contrary to the desired goal of decreasing the burden of institutional substitute care, this burden has in fact increased. In addition, an issue of concern needing attention is a remarkable tension between paid professional and relationship-based care.

THE AFFIXOIDATION PHENOMENON AND THE LANGUAGE SYSTEMS UNIFICATION

The word formation by affixoidation is an active and widely used process, especially in Greek, German, Russian languages etc. For the Romance languages, this model of word formation is less specific because of their analytical nature. In the report the author presents words formed by affixoids, scholarly elements of Greek-Latin origin that form the core of the international terminological lexicon. The first words formed by affixoidation entered the Romanian language along with the translations of Greek, Italian, French, around XVII – XVIII centuries. The Greek word formation is updated in the scientific style and in the specialized terminological languages. The terminological neologisms (formed by affixoids) maintain their international status; this facilitates the unification, planning and standardization of the international terminology.

Data representation in healthcare: a design for a freely-available openly-developed international reference terminology for healthcare.

The importance of data representation in healthcare has been of concern for centuries. In the last fifty years there has been an increasing awareness of the need for formal representations of terminological systems. We propose that terminological system development should be consensus driven and the product of iterative open refinement in order to practically serve the needs of the healthcare community. The system of development and maintenance of such a system must involve recruitment of the best and the brightest in the medical community to take responsibility for insuring the accuracy and completeness of such an effort. We suggest a method for algorithmically building a starting point for such a reference terminology. Further we suggest a distributed authoring environment that would allow domain experts to contribute regardless of their location or language. Open intellectual contribution is the necessary ingredient for a consensus based international health reference terminology.

Diagnostic criteria for malnutrition – An ESPEN Consensus Statement

To provide a consensus-based minimum set of criteria for the diagnosis of malnutrition to be applied independent of clinical setting and aetiology, and to unify international terminology. The European Society of Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN) appointed a group of clinical scientists to perform a modified Delphi process, encompassing e-mail communications, face-to-face meetings, in group questionnaires and ballots, as well as a ballot for the ESPEN membership. First, ESPEN recommends that subjects at risk of malnutrition are identified by validated screening tools, and should be assessed and treated accordingly. Risk of malnutrition should have its own ICD Code. Second, a unanimous consensus was reached to advocate two options for the diagnosis of malnutrition. Option one requires body mass index (BMI, kg/m(2)) <18.5 to define malnutrition. Option two requires the combined finding of unintentional weight loss (mandatory) and at least one of either reduced BMI or a low fat free mass index (FFMI). Weight loss could be either >10% of habitual weight indefinite of time, or >5% over 3 months. Reduced BMI is <20 or <22 kg/m(2) in subjects younger and older than 70 years, respectively. Low FFMI is <15 and <17 kg/m(2) in females and males, respectively. About 12% of ESPEN members participated in a ballot; >75% agreed; i.e. indicated ≥7 on a 10-graded scale of acceptance, to this definition. In individuals identified by screening as at risk of malnutrition, the diagnosis of malnutrition should be based on either a low BMI (<18.5 kg/m(2)), or on the combined finding of weight loss together with either reduced BMI (age-specific) or a low FFMI using sex-specific cut-offs.

Comments on the Publication of Munich Nomenclature III by the Cytology Coordination Conference.

The Bethesda system (TBS) for the classification of Pap smears was introduced in 1988 because, at the time, several different classification systems were being used in parallel, leading to greater numbers of unspecific diagnoses requiring subsequent triaging and resulting in higher costs. The TBS was revised in 1991 and in 2001; it has been used in the USA and many other countries since 12 years and has not been revised since then. The German Cytology Coordination Conference (KoKoZyt) has translated the TBS into German to bring the cytological nomenclature used in Germany into line with international terminology; it is referred to as “Munich Nomenclature III for the Cytological Diagnosis of Cervical Pap smears, as of 1 July 2014 (1, cf. http://www.ag-cpc.de, website of the German Society for Cervical Pathology and Colposcopy). We welcome this approach as this permits international comparisons of findings. However, the authors have concluded that the revised version for Group II will improve the sensitivity of the detection of cervical intraepithelial neoplasias and glandular cervical neoplasias without decreasing the specificity, it will improve the communication of cytological findings among cytologists, gynecologists and their patients, the quality of care offered to patients will improve as unnecessary follow-up examinations and therapies will be avoided, and it will be possible to reduce the subsequent costs of preventative cervical cancer screening. The Bethesda system has been used in the USA for 25 years and there is not a single study which has evaluated any one of these 4 points listed in the “Conclusions to Munich Nomenclature III”. According to personal communications by well-known American researchers who have worked extensively on TBS such as Diane Solomon 2, Walter Kinney, Mark Stoler and Massad Stewart 3, such studies have not been and will not be carried out. We therefore suggest that the authors remove the “Conclusions” and develop a scientific concept which can be used to show whether the above-listed 4 hypotheses can be proven. Each of the 19(!) possible diagnostic groups listed in Munich Nomenclature III is accompanied by recommendations which are peppered with terms such as “as the case may be”, “possibly”, “and/or”, “in special casesʼ, ”additive methods”. The TBS includes no recommendations whatsoever; our colleagues in the USA who have been using the TBS since 1988 can refer to consensus guidelines which are regularly updated, most recently in 2012, and which offer recommendations on how to examine and treat different TBS groups. In these guidelines, the 10 TBS groups used to describe epithelial changes (compared to 17(!) groups in Munich Nomenclature III) are divided into additional subgroups for women aged between 21–24 years and between 30–64 years, pregnant women, postmenopausal women, women with positive or negative HPV results or who tested positive for HPV-16 or -18, and women with a previous history of cytologically abnormal smears. The consensus guidelines conclude that “electronic medical records and computers hold great promise for assisting clinicians and patients in negotiating the complexity” of the many different potential options. We therefore propose that Munich Nomenclature III should be simplified in analogy to the TBS and that all recommendations should be removed. An S3 Guideline “Prevention of Cervical Cancer” is currently being compiled with differentiated and practicable recommendations for the respective diagnoses which also take account of the specific framework of our healthcare system (including the use and availability of biological markers, experience with colposcopy, the expectations of patients, and laws). Classification systems such as the TBS or Munich Nomenclature III remain unchanged for several decades while guidelines are reviewed and modified every 2 years.

THE VOLUNTEERED GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION IN ARCHAEOLOGY

Abstract. The purpose of the paper is to investigate the Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI), which is still at a very early stage, to identify its use worldwide including characteristic examples and research its potential applications in Cultural Heritage and Archaeology as a new field for study. In the first part of the paper a brief review of the field is given, the international terminology and its components are analysed. The basic framework of VGI and the international research trends are presented as well. The second part deals with the applications of VGI in Cultural Heritage and Archaeology. Finally, some thoughts, conclusions and recommendations for action and institutionalization of use are offered underlining that VGI cannot be applied to Archaeology without professional attendance and supervision so as unwanted results can be prevented.

Variables describing the use of antibiotics in food-producing animals

In order to represent relationships between the use of antibiotics in food-producing animals and the extend of bacteria with resistance characteristics, it is necessary to have access to information about dispensary and consumption of antibiotic drugs. This does not only require suitable detection methods, but also the establishment of figures which adequately describe the use of antibiotics both on the level of the enterprise, respectively veterinarian, as well as in cumulative form. In various countries different calculations for the analysis of data on antibiotic use are applied, therefore the results are not always comparable.The aim of this publication is to provide an overview of the national and international terminology and variables, to give concrete definitions and to identify those variables most suitable for particular objectives. Hereby a contribution to the standardization of evaluations should be made, to enable a comparison of data on use of antibiotics from various sources of information.