International Scientific Cooperation Research Articles

ПОРІВНЯЛЬНИЙ АНАЛІЗ ВИКОРИСТАННЯ ТЕРМІНОЛОГІЇ У СФЕРІ НАУКОВИХ ДОСЛІДЖЕНЬ І РОЗРОБОК В УКРАЇНІ ТА СВІТІ

The article provides a comparative analysis of the terminology used in the field of scientific and scientific-technical activity, in particular, when conducting specific fundamental and applied scientific research, scientific-technical developments in Ukraine and the world for its further coordination. It was revealed that there are certain discrepancies between the terms used in the legislative field of Ukraine and those used in the activities of the international scientific and technical community, in particular the European Union. It is shown that the existing inconsistency between the terminology used by the Ukrainian scientific and technical community and the terminology used by the international scientific community can be one of the reasons for slowing down the process of integration of Ukrainian and international science and reduces the participation of potential Ukrainian participants in Framework international programs, the main of which today is Horizon Europe. The legislative acts of Ukraine, which regulate the sphere of scientific research and development in Ukraine, are analyzed. The main terms used in the legal field of the international scientific community during participation in the Framework Programs and their interpretation in the Ukrainian legal field are given. It is shown that in the legal field of Ukraine some terms are defined differently in different legal documents. It was found that such a definition is often carried out in a situational way and describes a rather narrow scope of application. The paper proves the necessity of using international databases, the tools of which use the terminology of the international scientific community in the field of competitive financing of scientific and research/grant projects, primarily the CORDIS database. The navigation and the possibilities provided by this database for obtaining the opportunity for Ukrainian scientists to join the participation in the international Horizon Europe Framework Program are described. This will make it possible to increase the effectiveness of the application of grant programs for the further development of both scientific and economic cooperation between Ukraine and Europe within the framework of international scientific and technical cooperation.

International Scientific Cooperation in the Arctic among the BRICS Countries

This article summarises the characteristics of the current platform for BRICS scientific research and cooperation in the Arctic. The BRICS countries’ activities for the development of the Arctic region are analysed. The Arctic cooperation platform is explored through an analysis of official documents, a review of ongoing official events. The BRICS countries are implementing relevant joint projects to develop and explore the Arctic, on the one hand realising their own needs, and on the other using the specific advantages of their economic systems. From time to time, they organise and hold multilateral meetings and conferences. However, most cooperation takes place in a bilateral format. It is based on the organisation of conferences, cooperation between research institutes and joint training. This helps the BRICS countries to expand their influence in the Arctic. Based on an analysis of the identified materials, including projects developed to date but not yet implemented, the author seeks to summarise the main characteristics and features of BRICS Arctic cooperation and to identify its strengths and weaknesses. The conclusions of the paper present relevant proposals for improving the effectiveness of the BRICS countries’ joint work on the Arctic agenda in the medium term.

Risk Assessment of Scientific and Technological Cooperation among RCEP Countries Based on Cloud Model

Accurate risk assessment of international scientific and technological (S&T) cooperation is significant to international cooperation. In this paper, 5 risk dimensions with respect to the political, economic, social, cultural as well as technological of the regional comprehensive economic partnership countries (RCEP) are selected to establish a proper S&T cooperation index system for risk assessment. To calculate the weight of each index, a cross-entropy combination weighting method is proposed based on the combination weighting method of game theory. Furthermore, the standard cloud model is constructed by using the golden ratio, and the risk of S&T cooperation among the RCEP countries is analyzed by the cloud model. The results show that the combination weighting method proposed in this paper is effective, and its calculation is simpler than that of the game theory combination weighting method. Besides, compared with political, social, cultural, and technological indicators, economic indicators have a greater impact on S&T cooperation risk. Furthermore, it is also obtained from the results that the risk of S&T cooperation with China and the Philippines is at a lower to low level and medium to higher level, respectively, and the risk of S&T cooperation with other countries is all at a lower to medium level.

The realities of postmodern internationalization: The experience of the ukrainian vocational education

The topical problems of increasing country's competitiveness considering world experience should be solved only in accordance with modern requirements of rapidly changing information society, where competitive advantages largely depend on the quality of human resources and investments in human capital. The article describes the practical aspects of the development of internationalization of vocational education in Ukraine on the experience of Berdyansk State Pedagogical University; clarifies the current opportunities for improving the quality of education in the light of international practice on the example of the Benemérita Autonomous University of Puebla (Mexico), and identifies the ways to realize the potential of partnership in vocational education in Ukraine. The experience of Ukraine, Poland and Mexico, where the main condition for integration into the global university of knowledge is the quality of higher education institutions in accordance with international standards of curricula, has been analyzed. The practical experience of international scientific activities of Berdyansk State Pedagogical University and Benemérita Autonomous University of Puebla is described. The article concludes about the effectiveness of international cooperation in science, which determines the status and prestige of the university, examines the European integration process of higher education system of Ukraine and the existing international training technologies.

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL COOPERATION IN THE CONDITIONS OF STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN THE WORLD ECONOMY AND INCREASED COMPETITION

The article is devoted to the study of the phenomenon of “international scientific and technical cooperation” as an important element of international economic relations, contributing to an increase in the innovative component of economic growth. A critical analysis of the author's definitions and approaches of the UN to assess the role and importance of international scientific and technical cooperation for the world community has been carried out, modern features of cooperation have been identified, on the basis of which the trends in the development of the world technological market have been substantiated.

The sanctions regimes of Germany and Great Britain in the field of international scientific cooperation with the participation of Russia: the political and legal nature and consequences

The article undertakes a political and legal analysis of the complications in the scientific and technical cooperation of Russia with Germany and Great Britain. Particular attention is paid to the identification of the subjects of the introduction of anti-Russian sanctions regimes, as well as the substantive characteristics of the varieties of unilateral restrictive measures in the field of scientific cooperation. The authors dwell in detail on the disclosure of the correlation of legal and asiological aspects of the introduction of sanctions restrictions. It was important to compare the sanctions regimes of Germany and Great Britain in terms of the dynamics, subject composition and content of unilateral restrictive measures. The study proves that the invasion of foreign policy interests by Germany and Great Britain into bilateral international scientific cooperation means the decline of the former era of scientific diplomacy. The main conclusion of the work is the provision that the suspension of cooperation with Russia in the scientific field does not result from violations by our country of its legal obligations in the field of bilateral international scientific cooperation. The gap in cooperation at the institutional level is supplemented by the assumption of informal scientific communication. But overly politicized demands for the continuation of this cooperation violate the right to freedom of scientific research. The novelty of the study lies in the fact that for the first time in the framework of the subject area of research of scientific sanctions in a comparative way and in the context of modern theoretical developments, the content of the anti-Russian sanctions regimes of Germany and Great Britain, which are among Russia's main partners in the field of international scientific and technical cooperation, was revealed.

International scientific and technical cooperation with Russia's participation in the space sphere under sanctions: results and prospects

The article analyzes the anti-Russian sanctions regime imposed by Europe and the United States in the field of space cooperation. As a result, space became involved in a geopolitical confrontation, which was not observed during the Cold War. The purpose of the article is to understand the features and consequences of the sanctions regime in relation to international scientific and economic cooperation with Russia's participation in the space sphere. The article claims that the sanctions regime in the space sphere of international cooperation is characterized by specifics. It consists in supplementing Western sanctions with measures that Russia has taken on its part to withdraw from some international scientific and technical projects. Special attention was paid to the study of the negative consequences of sanctions, which consist in complicating the synergy of efforts so necessary to make a cardinal breakthrough in the space sphere in the interests of all mankind. General scientific methods of analysis and synthesis, abstraction and generalization were used. This made it possible to move from diverse empirical data to theoretical generalizations about the nature and models of sanctions regimes against the Russian space industry and space science. In addition to this, a comparative approach was used, as well as a modeling method and a forecasting method. The novelty of the study lies in the fact that in it the event analysis of the confrontation in the context of the "sanctions – counter-sanctions" bundle is built in the context of the theory of sanctions in the field of science and technology. In addition, the problems of Western sanctions in relation to Russia's participation in international cooperation are shown against the background of an objective trend of fragmentation of international cooperation in the field of space. The main conclusion of the work is the position on the radicalism of Europe in severing ties with Russia and the cautious approach of the United States. It is demonstrated that considering the current situation through the prism of the concept of scientific and technical isolation of Russia in the space sphere is an exaggeration. The study showed that the damage caused by sanctions and counter-sanctions in relation to the Russian space industry, as well as in relation to world cosmonautics and space science is not catastrophic. At the same time, the current situation stimulates Russia's proactive scientific and technical policy at the national and international levels.

The European Union's sanctions regime against Russian science

Unprecedented unilateral restrictive measures against Russia's participation in international scientific and technical cooperation (scientific sanctions) have become an integral part of the modern European sanctions policy. The subject of the article is the EU sanctions regime against Russian science, which implements an appropriate policy aimed at ending the participation of Russian scientific institutions and organizations in projects implemented within the framework of EU scientific programs. The purpose of the article is to reveal the content and model of the EU sanctions regime against Russian science. The hypothesis of the study is the position that the model of the sectoral sanctions regime under consideration combines general and specific points. The article argues that the specified sectoral sanctions regime of the EU is autonomous in nature and does not represent something derived from scientific sanctions imposed by member States. General scientific methods of analysis and synthesis, abstraction and generalization were used. This made it possible to move from diverse empirical data to theoretical generalizations about the nature and model of the EU sanctions regime against Russian science. In addition, historical and comparative approaches were used, as well as a modeling method. The article substantiates the conclusion about the contradictory nature of the value and legal foundations of this regime, which is reflected in the lack of unity of views of European expert circles regarding the degree of rupture of scientific ties with Russia. The author substantiates that the massive and, by historical standards, sudden introduction of scientific sanctions in 2022, forming a special sanctions regime, is not the result of certain difficulties that occurred earlier in Russian-European scientific cooperation. On the contrary, it is a systematically motivated destruction of the bridges of scientific diplomacy created after the Cold War. A negative consequence of the functioning of this regime was a decrease in the degree of internationalization of Russian science and its ability to contribute not only to solving applied problems of national socio-economic development, but also to solving global problems of our time. The novelty of the study lies in the fact that for the first time in the scientific literature, structural subsystems of the EU scientific sanctions regime are identified, as well as their additional identification features are characterized.

The Precarious Balance Between Research Openness and Security

Amid increasing competition and conflict with countries such as China, calls to restrict international scientific cooperation overlook benefits to the United States.

China’s Bifurcated Space Diplomacy and Institutional Density

Abstract This article compares two central pillars of China’s space programme and observes that Chinese space diplomacy is not uniform regarding international scientific co-operation either in its approaches or in results. In the case of the Chinese Space Station programme, the China National Space Administration went through existing United Nations (UN) channels and successfully attracted international partners. However, the International Lunar Research Station has avoided UN channels and used national and bilateral platforms. This bifurcation in approaches and results offers an intriguing puzzle concerning international co-operation: practices of institutionalised multilateral co-operation and areas of state-centric bilateral co-operation co-exist in this case and further complicate the issue of space diplomacy. To propose a potential explanation, it is argued here that a crucial intermediate variable — institutional density — requires further theorising, as it seems to influence strategic choices about space diplomacy, which may lead to success or failure.

Oceanographic Investigations in the Tropical Atlantic (Cruise 52 of the Research Vessel “Akademik Boris Petrov”)

Information is presented on the work performed to study the flow of Antarctic Bottom Water along the entire length of the Vema Fracture Zone in the tropical part of the North Atlantic Ridge and Russian-Brazilian field studies in the largest river plume of the World Ocean, on the shelf of the northern part of Brazil near the mouth of the Amazon River. A total of 46 stations were completed in the Vema Fracture Zone and 28 stations offshore Brazil. The new expedition that took place was an important step in the development of international scientific cooperation between the BRICS countries: Russia and Brazil.

Ценностное отношение студентов к онлайн образованию в рамках международного научного сотрудничества на современном этапе

The article deals with the problem of forming the value attitude of student youth to the spread of distance formats and digital tools within the framework of international scientific cooperation and intercultural communication. The authors analyze the possibilities of using new forms and methods of online education in the pedagogical process and during international scientific forums (conferences, seminars, colloquia, schools for young scientists). The development of international scientific cooperation in the framework of the digitalization of education is considered within the framework of an axiological approach.

Intellectual property rights to the research results of a Ukrainian scientist working abroad and foreign scientists, working in Ukraine

Keywords: protection of intellectual property, researcher, international scientific cooperation,research, work abroad
 The practice of universities and scientific organizations in the EU, the USA, the documents ofthe EU Framework Programs for Research and Innovation, WIPO on the regulation ofintellectual property rights on inventions and other objects used or created by a researchertemporarily working in another scientific organization or university, includingabroad is considered. It is noted that, as a rule, institutions apply two approaches: determiningthe specifics of the researcher's stay in the partner institution in the cooperationagreement. And also, in the case of individual grants, scholarships, the definition of theterms of settlement of IP rights in the IP policy of the institution and the contract withthe researcher. In cooperation agreements, it is essential to define the background IPused during research, as well as the conditions for acquiring rights to foreground IP, includingthose created jointly by the parties.In the case of individual grants, scholarships, it is relevant to determine whether duringthe research it is intended to use background IP, the rights to which belong to the researcher'sinstitution. If so, this provides for the need to conclude an agreement betweenthe host institution and the institution of the researcher on the use of the background.Depending on the degree of use of background IP by the institutions of the researcherand the financial contribution or provision of equipment at the host institution, the issueof distribution of IP rights to foreground IP should be envisaged in such an agreement.In the case of the researcher's obligations to preserve confidential information abouthis institution, the host institution must make sure that such confidential information isnot used when conducting research. In the event that such use may be necessary, thehost institution and the researcher institution should enter into a non-disclosure agreement.The article provides recommendations of the Center for Intellectual Property Studiesand Technology Transfer of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine regarding thesettlement of IP protection issues in various options for a researcher, visiting foreign scientificinstitution (university). Academic mobility provided for by Ukrainian legislationcan also be a tool for the settlement of these issues, with the possibility of regulation of IPissues in agreement between partner institutions and contract with the researcher.

Alvin William Trivelpiece

An outstanding leader, physicist, and administrator, Alvin William Trivelpiece died on 7 August 2022 in Rancho Santa Margarita, California.Alvin William TrivelpieceAIP ESVA/PHYSICS TODAY COLLECTIONPPT|High resolutionBorn on 15 March 1931 in Stockton, California, Al put himself through California Polytechnic State College and graduated in 1953 with a degree in electrical engineering. He earned a PhD in electrical engineering in 1958 from Caltech under the guidance of Roy Gould. His dissertation was titled “Space charge waves in cylindrical plasma columns.”After spending a year in the Netherlands as a Fulbright scholar, Al became a professor of electrical engineering at the University of California, Berkeley. In 1966 he became a professor of physics at the University of Maryland, College Park, where he supervised 19 doctoral candidates and published more than 40 papers on plasma physics. Al also wrote, with Nicholas Krall, Principles of Plasma Physics, which remains a classic textbook 50 years after publication.Taking a leave of absence from the University of Maryland in 1973, Al served for two years with the Atomic Energy Commission as an assistant director for research in the division of controlled thermonuclear research. Among his achievements was the establishment of the national Controlled Thermonuclear Research Computer Center (CTRCC), which provided fusion researchers across the country with remote access to leading-edge computing resources. The idea was met with considerable skepticism, but it became a model used by other science agencies.In 1976 Al became vice president for engineering and research at Maxwell Laboratories, and in 1978 he was appointed corporate vice president of Science Applications Inc. Three years later Al was nominated by President Ronald Reagan and confirmed by the Senate as director of the Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Research (now the Office of Science), where he had responsibility for 5 research programs and 10 of DOE’s laboratories. He also served as the energy secretary’s science adviser.As director, Al developed a plan for construction of five major scientific research facilities: the Advanced Light Source, the Advanced Photon Source, the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility, and the Spallation Neutron Source (SNS). Those facilities continue to sustain US leadership in many fields of science today. Al’s planning was informed by federal advisory committees that he established and the National Academy of Sciences, an approach that continues to serve DOE’s Office of Science well.Al and Charles DeLisi in 1986 initiated the Human Genome Project, which has had an enormous impact on the life sciences and medical research. Al was masterful in obtaining support for the project from DOE management, the Office of Management and Budget, and the US Congress. The National Institutes of Health joined the project two years later.Al expanded the scope of the CTRCC to form the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, which continues to serve the research programs in the Office of Science as well as other DOE programs.In 1987 Al became the executive officer of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and publisher of Science. Then in January 1989, he became director of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, where he was responsible for several initiatives. He created the Office of Laboratory Computing to enhance Oak Ridge’s ability to meet complex scientific challenges. Al led the development of a successful proposal for the Center for Computational Sciences, which brought together computational-science teams, computer scientists, and the hardware vendor Intel. It was designated as one of two DOE high-performance computing research centers in 1993.A second major achievement was the SNS. The lab had been designing a reactor-based neutron source. When the cost became unacceptable, Al took the lead in shifting to the accelerator-based SNS and gathered a multilab consortium to execute design and construction and broaden the project’s base of support. The SNS returned the US to a world-leading position in neutron-scattering research.Al was an advocate for international cooperation in science. His work behind the scenes with Evgeny Velikhov led to an agreement between the US and the Soviet Union on developing a magnetic-fusion demonstration model, which laid the groundwork for the ITER project.Al’s outstanding achievements extend across research, education, science administration, and national security. He was an innovator in the positions he held. Many of his accomplishments resulted from his understanding of science and politics and his ability to guide projects through government processes.Those of us who worked closely with Al have been fortunate to have had the opportunity. Al was a continuous source of ideas and wisdom. He had a great sense of humor and was quick to generate puns. He enjoyed playing poker, chess, and golf and was an avid runner. He piloted his own airplane to the age of 85. His wisdom, leadership, and friendship will be missed.© 2023 American Institute of Physics.

Deglobalization processes in the global economy and prospects for its innovative development

Subject. The article addresses problems related to the innovative development of the modern world economy, the pace of which is likely to decrease due to the ongoing processes of deglobalization. Objectives. The purpose is to analyze the essence, nature, and directions of deglobalization processes, study their nature, and find out the possibility that deglobalization processes in the modern economy will have a restraining effect on its innovative development. Methods. The study rests on methods of induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, statistical and graphical methods for data representation. Results. Three main positions determine the future of the globalization process. They unite both representatives of economic science and business community. The analysis of ongoing transformations demonstrated a number of trends in the development of international economic relations, confirming their deglobalization character. These trends have a negative impact on the development of international scientific and technical cooperation and prospects for innovative economic development. This is characterized by the ongoing reduction in the number of international investment innovation and technological initiatives. Conclusions. The ongoing transformations in the world economy, characterized by a number of researchers as a process of deglobalization, need further study. The nature of deglobalization processes is largely determined by the desire to implement a policy of technological deterrence, which seems counterproductive.

About Sectoral Statistical Toolkit and Statistical Data on the Number of Foreign Students

The development of the export of education and international scientific and educational communication is an important task assigned to the federal executive bodies of the Russian Federation. However, there are reasons that impede the development of international scientific and educational cooperation. The article, based on the results of analysis of statistics in the field of export of educational services, considers the development of sectoral statistical tools for monitoring international educational cooperation.

МІЖНАРОДНЕ НАУКОВО-ТЕХНІЧНЕ СПІВРОБІТНИЦТВО З ЄС В СФЕРІ ЕНЕРГЕТИКИ: ПРІОРИТЕТИ Й ПЕРСПЕКТИВИ

The importance of cooperation between Ukraine and the European Union is described in the article. The priority directions of research and innovation activity of the EU countries in the field of energy are considered. The key strategic directions of the state energy policy of Ukraine are described, taking into account the country’s European integration course. The state and main problems of the development of the energy sector are analyzed. The trends of energy generation from renewable sources and possibilities of development of this sphere in Ukraine are determined. The necessity of the country’s participation in international scientific and technical cooperation in the energy sector, primarily with the EU are substantiated. Ukraine's declared pro-European orientation requires an appropriate activity strategy, which involves taking into account European standards of production and economic development. Thus, the signing of the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the EU opens up significant prospects for international scientific and technical cooperation of Ukrainian industrial enterprises, in particular energy enterprises, which are determined by greater involvement in innovative and technological projects of the EU, expanding access to capacious European sales markets, using Ukraine's opportunities for attraction of foreign investments and technology transfer, as well as participation in various EU development programs. At the same time, this requires not only the establishment of new priorities for the development of the energy sector, but also their achievement in the medium and long term. The process of international scientific and technical cooperation in the European Union plays a key role in the development of the economy, since the further strengthening of the EU's position on the world stage depends on the effectiveness of the involvement in the process of solving the problems of scientific and technical development of the potentials not only of the Commonwealth of Nations, but also of the entire European region. For this purpose, the European Commission has developed a plan for the creation of the "European Scientific Space", a special place in which cooperation with developing countries and countries with transition economies is given.

India: International Scientific and Technical Cooperation

The article aims to examine India’s international scientific and technical cooperation (ISTC) and its role in its national technological sovereignty. India has long claimed the status of a great power and, as a result, is striving to strengthen its positions in areas of strategic importance. Meanwhile, today, in terms of quality and volumetric characteristics, Indian achievements are significantly inferior to both the most developed countries and China, India’s key competitor. Against this contradictory background, an effective organization of international scientific and technological cooperation is becoming increasingly crucial to tap the country’s potential. In this regard, India tends to choose co-authors in scientifically and technologically advanced countries as well as to pursue a policy aimed at shaping the global scientific, technical, and innovation agenda in favor of its domestic socio-economic needs. With a view to reducing its excessive dependence on the leading economies in R&D, India attempts to expand the ISTC geography by establishing contacts with the BRICS countries. Given that amidst current political developments, India refused to stop the collaboration with our country even under the Western pressure, it is necessary for Russia to further deepen the dialogue.

ТРЕНДЫ РАЗВИТИЯ ОТРАСЛИ СЕЛЬСКОГО ХОЗЯЙСТВА В СТРАНАХ ЕВРАЗИЙСКОГО ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОГО СОЮЗА

The contribution of the agricultural sector to the formation of the gross domestic product of the countries of the Eurasian Economic Union is not the same. According to the official data of the Eurasian Economic Commission, the contribution of agriculture to the GDP of Kyrgyzstan in 2021 was 17%, Armenia — 12,8%, Belarus — 7,8%, Kazakhstan — 5,5%, Russian Federation — 4,3%. In total, the member countries of the Eurasian Economic Union have 317 million hectares of agricultural land (which is approximately 15% of the world scale), about 189 million hectares of arable land (which reaches 11% of the world value). The overall level of plowing of agricultural land in the EAEU countries is about 60%. In the total structure of the gross agricultural output of the countries of the Eurasian Economic Union, the largest share both in 2017 and in 2021 belongs to the Russian Federation (about 80%), then to Kazakhstan (10–11%), the Republic of Belarus (5–6%), Armenia and Kyrgyzstan (2% each). All ongoing processes in the economic development of the countries of the Eurasian Economic Union are to some extent similar. The agrarian policy of the Eurasian Economic Union should be aimed at a radical increase in labor productivity and the growth of exports of processed agricultural products to friendly countries. It is necessary to ensure the processing of raw materials and enter the world markets with high-quality finished products. The main direction for strengthening the Eurasian Economic Union should be: 1) the development of a powerful and modern production and marketing foundation based on cooperation, integration and international scientific cooperation; 2) implementation of a coordinated policy in the agro-industrial complex and agriculture; 3) improving the quality of products, the development of import substitution; 4) attraction of competitive, extraordinary-thinking personnel; 5) systematic introduction of innovations. The food market of the Eurasian Economic Union is a self-sufficient, resource-provided market, developing processing technologies in which you can get a decent economic benefit.

ՀԱՄԵՄԱՏԱԿԱՆ ԻՐԱՎԱԳԻՏՈՒԹՅԱՆ ԾԱԳՈՒՄՆ ՈՒ ԶԱՐԳԱՑՈՒՄԸ (ՊԱՏՄԱԿԱՆ ԶԱՐԳԱՑՄԱՆ ՀԻՄՆԱԿԱՆ ՈՒՂԵՆԻՇՆԵՐԸ)

In this article the author has systematically analyzed the problems related to the origin and development of comparative jurisprudence in specific countries, in particular the origin and development of the idea of comparative jurisprudence in the ancient world, the development of the views of comparative jurisprudence in the Middle Ages, the historical-philosophical aspects of comparative jurisprudence direction In Germany, the development of comparative jurisprudence in England and the USA, comparative jurisprudence in Russia, comparative jurisprudence in the first half of the 20th century, comparative jurisprudence in the period after World War 2, comparative jurisprudence and international scientific cooperation. The ideas of comparative jurisprudence in the ancient world were more prominently manifested in the works of the philosophers of Ancient Athens and the lawyers of Ancient Rome, according to Western scholars, it was here that not only comparative-legal ideas were formed for the first time but also, in practice for the first time, an attempt was made to subject the state and law to comparative research. In the Middle Ages, the ideas of comparative jurisprudence had a certain development based on the borrowing (reception) of Roman law, the formation and coordination of canon law, as well as national legal system (mainly) on the basis of customary law. Comparative legal studies continued throughout the Middle Ages, up to modern times, when Montesquieu, Hugo Grotius, Pufendorf, and others succeeded one another. In the new and modern period, comperative legal researches not only multiplied in therms of volume, but also took on a systematic nature and was gradually formed as an independent legal science.