International Protected Area Research Articles

Factors affecting the use of cultural ecosystem services in Lithuanian coastal area.

Assessing motivations and preferences related to cultural ecosystem services (CES) is essential, especially in areas with conflicting interests. The Lithuanian coast has a major international port, protected areas, and tourist demand, and it is a place with several conflicts regarding land use planning. In this study, we surveyed users' motivations and preferences to identify (1) preferred CES-related activities, (2) socio-demographic and recreational motivations, (3) composite variables for CES-related activities, and (4) propose relevant measures promoting sustainable development and supporting current policy and management goals for the coastal area of Lithuania. The results showed that experiential activities are the most preferred (81.6%) and aesthetic activities are the least preferred (0.2%). Among the experiential activities, tours were the most frequent (56.2%). There is a preference for tours and wellness activities, short trips (3–5 days), and staying with family and friends. The principal component analysis identified five groups. The first component is tourists’ motivations, and the other four are tourist type and visit characteristics, gender, duration of stay and accommodation type, and age group and distance to the coast. Interventions and measures need to be established by engaging all local stakeholders. They include soft mobility, tourism segmentation, promoting traditional activities, providing new experiences, and supporting a circular economy. These results are relevant for coastal management in the tourism context.

Conservation backfire: Local effects of international protected area policy

Protected areas (PA), promoted as the cornerstone strategy for halting biodiversity loss, often lead to conservation conflicts. The main standard of international PA policy (Target 3 of the new Global Biodiversity Framework, formerly the Aichi Target 11) promotes the expansion of these areas. Given the potential conflicts associated with PA, it is critical to reflect on the role of international conservation policy plays when applied to specific contexts. We discuss the risks of a PA policy whose implementation is biased towards quantitative surface targets through a case study in Southeastern Mexico. We reflect on the negative effects of following international conservation policy without adapting it to specific socioecological context, and how this can hinder the management of conservation conflicts. Finally, we discuss how an overemphasis on quantitative area targets hinders efforts to address the challenge of linking global conservation policy on PA to specific socioecological contexts, thereby compromising social and conservation outcomes.

Evaluation of the Genotoxic and Histological Effects in Neotropical Fish Prochilodus Lacustris (Pisces, Prochilodontidae) in Conservation Area of the Brazilian Northeast.

Human activities significantly impact the aquatic biota in lacustrine environments, leading to negative environmental consequences. Due to this, this study was carried out to evaluate the genotoxic and histological biomarkers in the gills and kidneys of Prochilodus lacustris. The collection of fish and water was conducted in three distinct stations (S1, S2, S3) in an international protected area in northeast Brazil. The histological alterations index was used to assess changes in the gills and kidneys at a histological level. In addition, micronucleus and nuclear abnormalities tests were employed to examine damage to the genetic material. According to the frequency of Micronucleus, nuclear injuries, and the histopathology of gills and kidneys, it can be inferred that station S1 had the highest impact on the fish, causing significant harm. Based on our findings, the organisms residing in Lake Açu are adversely affected by the poor environmental conditions. This raises doubts about the effectiveness of the Protection Area by Humid Zone of International Interest in Northeast Brazil.

A social method to address the interplay between protected areas and land use policies

During the last decade, several authors have supported the need to integrate protected areas (PAs) with land use planning (LUP) policies to improve nature conservation and promote sustainable and just cities and territories. However, this process presents multiple challenges in different parts of the world. This article introduces and develops a method of analysis for the articulation between protected areas (PAs) and land use planning (LUP) policies from the perspective of social sciences. This combines a diagnostic first stage of content analysis of land use plans at a provincial/regional/statal scale, with a second stage of an in-depth political analysis in some study cases at municipal scale. The first stage involve the spatial identification of all the municipal districts of a selected study area with provincial, national or international PAs and land use plans. Seven questions guide the analysis of those plans in terms of the degree and quality of PAs nominal articulation. This information, in addition to previous normative data, allows for the development of a formula for the comparative analysis and mapping of the institutional vulnerability and risk of those municipal districts. In the second stage, a synchronous substantive (content) and institutional (network of stakeholders) analysis of land use policies in selected municipal cases is carried out. To this end, interviews, surveys, media analysis and public documents are conducted. Thus, this method combined different focus scales and quali-quantitative techniques to advance the knowledge of key variables intended for improving political coordination in the promotion of nature conservation. This model was tested in the case of the province of Buenos Aires (Argentina).•A social sciences’ method for studying land use planning and protected areas coordination is introduced.•The method combines two stages and scales: diagnostic content analysis of land use plans in a provincial/regional/statal scale plus an in-depth political analysis in study cases at a municipal scale.•This method is useful for estimating normative vulnerability and risk, identifying key political variables for coordination, and making public policy recommendations according to the current conservation paradigm.

Green Turtles Highlight Connectivity Across a Regional Marine Protected Area Network in West Africa

Networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) are invaluable for the protection of species with high dispersal capacity, yet connectivity within networks is poorly understood. We demonstrate the connectivity within the regional MPA network in West Africa (RAMPAO), mediated by the largest green turtle population in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. We equipped with satellite tags 45 female green turtles nesting in the Bijagós Archipelago, Guinea-Bissau, and tracked them during internesting, migration, and foraging to quantify the degree of coverage the RAMPAO network provides during each of these critical periods. During the internesting period, turtles were largely concentrated around the nesting islands, with a mean of 94.8% (SD 0.1%, range: 46% - 100%, n = 40 turtles) of tracking positions falling within MPA limits. Among the 35 turtles successfully tracked into the foraging period, we identified variable migratory strategies, with 12 turtles remaining near-resident at distances of 40-90 km from breeding sites, 10 turtles migrating 300-400 km to The Gambia and Senegal, and 13 turtles traveling >1000 km to northern Mauritania. Of the 35 foraging turtles, 26 used MPAs, with a mean of 78.0% (SD 34.8%, range: 3.7% - 100%) of their tracking positions falling within the limits of RAMPAO MPAs, across Guinea-Bissau, Senegal and Mauritania. Migration corridors with high concentrations of passing turtles were mostly located nearshore, and 21% of these high passage areas fell within the MPA network. Overall, we found that this population connects five RAMPAO MPAs, yet some foraging sites (e.g., in the Bijagós) and important migration areas (e.g., Cap-Vert peninsula) described here are currently unprotected. These results are relevant to any considerations of MPA extension or establishment within the regional network, which would contribute towards meeting the Convention on Biological Diversity targets for national marine protected area estate coverage. By documenting biological connectivity across RAMPAO, this study represents an important example of the relevance of international protected area networks for green turtle conservation and for wider conservation action at a regional scale.

Shifting landscape suitability for cocaine trafficking through Central America in response to counterdrug interdiction

Cocaine traffickers, or ‘narco-traffickers’, successfully exploit the heterogeneous landscapes of Central America for transnational smuggling. Narco-traffickers successfully adapt to disruptions from counterdrug interdiction efforts by spatially adjusting smuggling routes to evade detection, and by doing so bring collateral damages, such as deforestation, corruption, and violence, to new areas. This study is novel for its integration of landscape suitability analysis with criminological theory to understand the locations of these spatial adaptations by narco-traffickers as intentional, logical, and predictable choices based on the socio-environmental characteristics of Central America’s landscapes. Multi-level, mixed effects negative binomial regression models predict the suitability of landscapes for cocaine trafficking across 17 departamentos (the unit of analysis) in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama from 2007 to 2018. Informed by long-term research in the region, independent variables included proximity to roads, country borders, and international ports, indigenous territories, population density, and protected areas. The year of peak interdiction (measured by kg of cocaine seized) in each departamento was used to analyze spatial shifts in landscape suitability before and after maximum counterdrug interdiction pressure. We find that areas with lower population density and closer proximity to international borders became more suitable following peak interdiction—i.e, they are more likely to be sought out by traffickers seeking to avoid further disruptions from counternarcotic efforts. Additionally, indigenous territories were disproportionately exploited as cocaine trafficking routes following significant interdiction activities by law enforcement. While interdiction may reduce the suitability of targeted locations, it can also unintentionally increase the attractiveness of other locations. Our study pushes criminological theory through its application to a unique space/time context, and it advances land system science by considering landscape suitability for logistical rather than productive uses. Policy implications are clear. Since interdiction resources are limited relative to the overall amount of trafficking activity, knowing which landscape features are viewed as suitable by traffickers can in the short-term guide interdiction deployment strategies, and in the longer term build strategies to mitigate associated harms from trafficking where they are most likely.

РЕГІОНАЛЬНА ЕКОМЕРЕЖА ВОЛИНСЬКОЇ ОБЛАСТІ

The purpose of the publication is to clarify the peculiarities of the formation, modern structure, prospects for the development of the regional ecological network of the Volyn Oblast, substantiation of measures to optimize its territorial organization. The methods of comparative geographical analysis, cartographic modeling, statistical are used in the work. The characterization of all available nature protection networks of the oblast: territories and objects of nature reserve fund, wetlands of Ramsar list, especially important nature protection territories of Emerald network, regional ecological network is made, the scheme of regional econetwork developed by authors is given, functioning problems are defined. It is shown that the Volyn Oblast has a significant environmental potential, and the border location necessitates environmental cooperation with Poland and Belarus, in particular in the formation of transboundary protected areas - international protected areas. Peculiarities of the development of the network of territories and objects of the nature reserve fund, substantiation of structural and functional elements of the regional ecological network are considered taking into account their hierarchy and landscape representativeness. The necessity of further physical-geographical researches of regional nature protection networks for the purpose of optimization of landscape-ecological organization of the territory is substantiated, which will promote realization of natural potential of geosystems and reduce probable risks of discrepancy between natural preconditions and their functional use. It is proved that effective environmental protection of the oblast requires practical implementation of a number of measures, including identification of rare species of plants and animals included in national and international conservation lists, development of relevant maps, inventory of lands subject to conservation, reclamation, etc., development of local econetworks in terms of administrative districts, united territorial communities, city and village councils, intensification of the process of greening of public consciousness and social production.

Deep-Sea Debris in the Central and Western Pacific Ocean

Marine debris is a growing problem in the world’s deep oceans. The naturally slow biological and chemical processes operating at depth, coupled with the types of materials that are used commercially, suggest that debris is likely to persist in the deep ocean for long periods of time, ranging from hundreds to thousands of years. However, the realized scale of marine debris accumulation in the deep ocean is unknown due to the logistical, technological, and financial constraints related to deep-ocean exploration. Coordinated deep-water exploration from 2015 to 2017 enabled new insights into the status of deep-sea marine debris throughout the central and western Pacific Basin via ROV expeditions conducted onboard NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer and RV Falkor. These expeditions included sites in U.S. protected areas and monuments, other Exclusive Economic Zones, international protected areas, and areas beyond national jurisdiction. Metal, glass, plastic, rubber, cloth, fishing gear, and other marine debris were encountered during 17.5% of the 188 dives from 150 m to 6,000 m depth. Correlations were observed between deep-sea debris densities and depth, geological features, and distance from human-settled land. The highest densities occurred off American Samoa and the main Hawaiian Islands. Debris, mostly consisting of fishing gear and plastic, were also observed in most of the large-scale marine protected areas, adding to the growing body of evidence that even deep, remote areas of the ocean are not immune from human impacts. Interactions with and impacts on biological communities were noted, though further study is required to understand the full extent of these impacts. We also discuss potential sources and long-term implications of this debris.

Análisis de cambio en la cobertura vegetal y uso del suelo en la región centro-norte de México. El caso de la cuenca baja del río Nazas

Leija, E.G., Valenzuela-Ceballos, S.I., Valencia-Castro, M., Jiménez-González, G., Castañeda-Gaytán, G., Reyes-Hernández, H., Mendoza, M.E. 2020. Analysis of change in vegetation cover and land use in the north-central region of Mexico. The case of the lower basin of the Nazas river. Ecosistemas 29(1): 1826. https://doi.org/10.7818/ECOS.1826 Deforestation has an important impact on ecosystems, altering their capacity for providing environmental services, affecting particularly semiarid areas. The Parque Estatal Cañón de Fernández is located on the lower section of Nazas river, with 24936,6 ha and constitutes an important national and international natural protected area, because it supplies water to several cities in the north of Mexico and is recognized as a highly important habitat for aquatic birds. Nevertheless, the necessity of satisfying agricultural activities and a growing population has promoted land use and cover changes in the region. The aim of this research was to evaluate land cover and land use changes on the lower basin of Río Nazas between 1990 and 2016. Based on visual interpretation of Landsat Tm and ETM images we generated digital data bases for land cover and land use. On 2016 the natural vegetation was composed by xeric shrub and riparian forest. In twenty six years deforestation affected 32.1% of the total area. There is a necessity to develop public policies for improving water sustainable use to preserve this xeric ecosystem.

The establishment of Chinese ecological conservation redline and insights into improving international protected areas

China proposed the Ecological Conservation Redline (ECR) strategy in 2011 and listed it as an important part of the ecological promotion process in 2013. In 2017, China implemented the designation of ECR at a national scale. The aim was to demarcate areas with unique ecological functions. Therefore, the ECR became a key part of national ecological security. Three major types of area are covered by the ECR so that important ecosystem functions can be protected. These are ecologically fragile zones, biodiversity, and natural landscapes. The ECR is characterized as being fundamental, systematic, and mandatory. This study summarizes the developmental background, theoretical framework, and structural composition of ECR, and highlights recent advances. A comparison of the ECR to international protected areas showed that they were generally similar, but there were differences in the methods used to protect targets, their system design, and their management, which provided insights and recommendations that could improve the construction and management of protected areas in the future. These included: (1) increasing the integrity of ecological protection by replacing dispersed protection with a more comprehensive and systematic approach, (2) increasing the spatial accuracy of protection to enhance the effectiveness of protection, and (3) implementing an overall-process management to guarantee the sustainability of protection. Finally, suggestions are made for further protected area improvements and ecological protection, including further theoretical exploration, strengthening management, and facilitating international cooperation.

Testing the presence of marine protected areas against their ability to reduce pressures on biodiversity.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are the preferred tool for preventing marine biodiversity loss, as reflected in international protected area targets. Although the area covered by MPAs is expanding, there is a concern that opposition from resource users is driving them into already low-use locations, whereas high-pressure areas remain unprotected, which has serious implications for biodiversity conservation. We tested the spatial relationships between different human-induced pressures on marine biodiversity and global MPAs. We used global, modeled pressure data and the World Database on Protected Areas to calculate the levels of 15 different human-induced pressures inside and outside the world's MPAs. We fitted binomial generalized linear models to the data to determine whether each pressure had a positive or negative effect on the likelihood of an area being protected and whether this effect changed with different categories of protection. Pelagic and artisanal fishing, shipping, and introductions of invasive species by ships had a negative relationship with protection, and this relationship persisted under even the least restrictive categories of protection (e.g., protected areas classified as category VI under the International Union for Conservation of Nature, a category that permits sustainable use). In contrast, pressures from dispersed, diffusive sources (e.g., pollution and ocean acidification) had positive relationships with protection. Our results showed that MPAs are systematically established in areas where there is low political opposition, limiting the capacity of existing MPAs to manage key drivers of biodiversity loss. We suggest that conservation efforts focus on biodiversity outcomes and effective reduction of pressures rather than prescribing area-based targets, and that alternative approaches to conservation are needed in areas where protection is not feasible.

Using Rao's quadratic entropy to define environmental heterogeneity priority areas in the European Mediterranean biome

Although environmental heterogeneity (EH) has recently gained increasing attention, its connection to conservation planning still remains limited. We aim to assess the efficiency of Rao's quadratic entropy for measuring EH and conducting prioritization schemes. We focus on EH priority areas in the European Mediterranean biome and we estimate to which extent they are included in national and international protected area networks. We estimate Rao and Shannon EH indices for the bioclimatic and topographic variables of the CHELSA and the ENVIREM datasets. We use systematic conservation planning algorithms, for each dataset and for several moving window extends and we estimate the overlaps among the different schemes.The Rao and Shannon EH indices do not measure EH levels in a similar way and Shannon indices tend to overestimate EH comparing to Rao. The overlaps between the ENVIREM and CHELSA prioritization schemes are moderate (Jaccard index = 0.4–0.6) and not sensitive to the moving window extend. We consider only the priority areas that are identified as such by both independent datasets. One third of the EH priority areas are located in Greece, one forth in Italy and one fifth in France and Spain. Only one third of the EH priority areas are located within nationally designated protected areas and up to half are located in Key Biodiversity Areas and the Natura 2000 network.We conclude that Rao's methodology should be further used for environmental heterogeneity analyses. EH priority conservation areas are only partially included in protected area networks, mostly in mountainous areas.

Automated aircraft tracking for park and landscape planning

Visitors to parks and protected areas appreciate and expect the opportunity to experience natural sounds, and are bothered by human-caused noises that reduce this opportunity. One of the most pervasive sources of noise in parks is aircraft. In 2017, there were over 150,000 reported air tours over U.S. National Park Service (NPS) units, excluding all units in the state of Alaska. There are also international protected areas impacted by the noise from air tours. In most cases, managers do not know the exact routes and altitudes of air tours, making planning efforts difficult. However, many countries are beginning to require all aircraft entering designated airspace to be equipped with Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) Out avionics. ADS-B Out broadcasts an un-encrypted and publicly accessible signal that relays real-time information including latitude, longitude, altitude, and unique identification code. In the U.S., this unique code can be cross-referenced to a Federal Aviation Administration database that provides aircraft tail number, model, and owner. This new technology presents opportunities for managers and regional/community planners to understand the types of aircraft, routes, and altitudes of flights that occur in the airspace above parks and adjacent communities, improving planning efforts for parks working to manage air tours. This study explores the feasibility of collecting ADS-B data by testing loggers at three U.S. NPS units. The findings of this study suggest that ADS-B data can be efficiently collected and processed; inform planners about the routes, altitudes, types of aircraft, and operators of overflights; and inform air tour management.

Looking for consensual protection categories to reduce conservation conflicts in protected áreas

ABSTRACT: Decision-making in protected areas is often difficult due to an unclear definition of management objectives and indicators for their monitoring. This is frequently related to the coexistence of systems of protected areas at national and regional levels for which management objectives are ambiguous or that are not directly related to protected areas classification standards. In this study, we proposed a participative model based on PROMETHEE II to find consensual protected areas categories based on IUCN framework. This model involved the stakeholder’s assessments of management objectives in a protected area and their aggregation based on distance comparisons with objectives of international protected areas standards. The model was tested in the Albufera de Valencia Natural Park, a strongly human-modified wetland located in Eastern Spain and it allowed the identification of consensual management priorities and the IUCN category V as the equivalent international protected area category for this regional protected area.

Area expansion versus effective and equitable management in international marine protected areas goals and targets

This paper draws on the published literature on marine protected areas (MPAs) and marine protected areas targets to argue that the MPA target (14.5) will dominate in the pursuit, measurement, and evaluation of the much broader ‘oceans’ Sustainable Development Goal (SDG14) adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in 2015. MPAs are a ‘privileged solution’ in marine conservation, in part because their expansion is relatively easy to measure and there is opportunity for further expansion in the mostly unprotected global ocean. However, the evolution of MPA targets over time in organizations like the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) illustrates the importance of other means for achieving conservation and of elements other than area coverage, including the need to ensure MPAs are effectively and equitably managed. By excluding these important, but contested, complex, and difficult to measure components, Target 14.5 is likely to be met. However, the meaning of this success will be limited without concerted efforts get beyond area coverage.

Fairness and Transparency Are Required for the Inclusion of Privately Protected Areas in Publicly Accessible Conservation Databases

There is a growing recognition of the contribution that privately-owned land makes to conservation efforts, and governments are increasingly counting privately protected areas (PPAs) towards their international conservation commitments. The public availability of spatial data on countries’ conservation estates is important for broad-scale conservation planning and monitoring and for evaluating progress towards targets. Yet there has been limited consideration of how PPA data is reported to national and international protected area databases, particularly whether such reporting is transparent and fair (i.e., equitable) to the landholders involved. Here we consider PPA reporting procedures from three countries with high numbers of PPAs—Australia, South Africa, and the United States—illustrating the diversity within and between countries regarding what data is reported and the transparency with which it is reported. Noting a potential tension between landholder preferences for privacy and security of their property information and the benefit of sharing this information for broader conservation efforts, we identify the need to consider equity in PPA reporting processes. Unpacking potential considerations and tensions into distributional, procedural, and recognitional dimensions of equity, we propose a series of broad principles to foster transparent and fair reporting. Our approach for navigating the complexity and context-dependency of equity considerations will help strengthen PPA reporting and facilitate the transparent integration of PPAs into broader conservation efforts.

Critical Capacity Development: An Action Research Approach in Coastal Brazil

Summary Capacity development is a development approach and a methodology with origins in colonization that has yet to be decolonized. The underlying assumption for the most part is that there are deficiencies in the abilities of the group in question, and does not question the possibility that the system or structure may be dysfunctional. The ongoing design and implementation of international protected area management systems in general, and the one described in this paper, continue to be based on a foundational assumption of a lack of community capacity for governance of the resources on which they depend, the “deficit” model. Emerging from the context of a community in Trindade, Brazil, the goal of the present project was to support members of a community-based organization in capacity development endeavors for needs they identified. Although the implementation of a series of courses is not a novel approach to capacity development, the commitment to critical pedagogy, the clarity of capacity development of what and for whom that was based on an assumption of capacity, defining the capacities needed and the purpose, and being guided by theory, were perhaps the more novel approaches used in this action research project. The goal of capacity development as attempted in the present research project was not to develop skills so that people may fit into an unjust structure or for ease of social control, but to support the enhancement of skills and knowledge to challenge the existing state of affairs. Instead of the insistence on Indigenous Peoples becoming willing partners in flawed governance systems, much work is needed to continue to address these significant flaws and failings, and to critically challenge the status quo.

Description of the vessel traffic within the north Pelagos Sanctuary: Inputs for Marine Spatial Planning and management implications within an existing international Marine Protected Area

International shipping, although considered a safe and environment-friendly form of transportation, has many direct and indirect impacts on cetaceans in many ways, particularly in the Mediterranean Sea, one of the world's busiest waterways. An AIS receiver located at 44.30 °N and 8.45 °E, operating between 3 May 2013 and 31 October 2014, provided a detailed description of the distribution, number, type and operation of vessels within the Pelagos Sanctuary, an international protected area dedicated to the conservation of marine mammals. A total of 3,757,587km of vessel traffic was recorded from 82,831 transits by 4205 distinct vessels. The spatial and temporal distribution of traffic was not uniform and dependent on vessel type (0.00<r<0.7); the level of shipping differed spatially between day and night. Passenger vessel traffic was predominant, with 20,853 transits totalling 1,385,361km, followed by cargo (12,384 transits totalling 1,427,681km). Transit speed significantly differed amongst vessel types (F=12621, d.f.=5, p-value<0.0001) with passenger vessels the fastest (mean 15.47±4.40kn). Hazardous cargo transits accounted for 435,116km. Vessels within the sanctuary navigated under the flags of 90 different states, in variable proportion depending on vessel type (X2=1231, d.f.=10, p-value<0.0001). The data presented in this study on high density shipping corridors and hazardous cargo supplies information for the identification of areas at higher risk from shipping. This data once integrated with available ecological data, can be used to inform ecosystem based management within a Marine Spatial Planning framework.

English

Executive Summary: Leisure in parks and other forms of protected areas are connected to an individual’s health and well-being. In this paper, we report on the results of a multi-year study that surveyed 1,515 visitors to three Provincial Parks and three Kananaskis Country Provincial Recreation Areas in Alberta, Canada. Results revealed several important findings with significant policy and planning implications for Alberta Parks, as well as the international parks and protected area community more broadly. Findings show that anticipated human health and well-being benefits were a major factor motivating individuals’ decision to visit a park or protected area. Perceived psychological/emotional benefits (89.1% of visitors), social benefits (88.3%), physical benefits (80.3%) and environmental well-being benefits (79.4%) were deemed the most important motivations. However, there was a negative correlation between age and each of these perceived benefits, indicating that older visitors were less motivated to visit protected areas for these reasons. Perceived benefits (outcomes) followed a similar pattern to motivations. The most improved factors were psychological/emotional (90.5%), social (85%), and physical well-being (77.6%). A demographic analysis revealed that females rated financial, social, psychological/emotional and spiritual well-being motivations higher than males. Income and education were also positively related to individuals’ ratings of physical, psychological and environmental well-being. Interestingly, health motivations and benefits (or outcomes) were correlated highly with nature relatedness, meaning the more connected one is to nature, the greater the motivation to visit parks and the greater the health and well-being benefits received from park experiences. Overall, this study represents the largest examination of the human health and well-being benefits associated with visitor experiences in a Canadian protected areas context. The results substantiate the need for park organizations to better understand the “service provider” – “client” relationship from a human health and well-being perspective so that integrated policies and visitor experience programs can be developed or enhanced where appropriate. The Alberta Parks Division, and the international protected areas community more broadly, should actively develop the social science foundation internally, and externally (through partnerships with the social science research community), to ensure that decisions are science-based, society-oriented, and effective at meeting both conservation and visitor experience objectives. Finally, our research indicates the need for a better empirical understanding of the human health and well-being motivations and benefits of visitors representing different social and population subgroups (e.g., youth, elderly, couples, family units, new immigrants) and of the role of distinct natural environments in health promotion.

Poverty and protected areas: An evaluation of a marine integrated conservation and development project in Indonesia

Protected areas are currently the primary strategy employed worldwide to maintain ecosystem services and mitigate biodiversity loss. Despite the prevalence and planned expansion of protected areas, the impact of this conservation tool on human communities remains hotly contested in conservation policy. The social impacts of protected areas are poorly understood largely because previous evaluations have tended to focus on one or very few outcomes, and few have had the requisite data to assess causal effects (i.e. longitudinal data for protected and control sites). Here, we evaluated the short-, medium- and long-term impacts of marine protected areas (MPAs) that were specifically designed to achieve the dual goals of conservation and poverty alleviation (hereafter “integrated MPAs”), on three key domains of poverty (security, opportunity and empowerment) in eight villages in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Using social data for villages with and without integrated MPAs from pre-, mid- and post-the five-year implementation period of the integrated MPAs, we found that the integrated MPAs appeared to contribute to poverty alleviation. Positive impacts spanned all three poverty domains, but within each domain the magnitude of the effects and timescales over which they manifested were mixed. Importantly, positive impacts appeared to occur mostly during the implementation period, after which integrated MPA activities all but ceased and reductions in poverty did not continue to accrue. This finding questions the efficiency of the short-term approach taken in many international donor-assisted protected area projects that integrate development and conservation, which are often designed with the expectation that project activities will be sustained and related benefits will continue to accumulate after external support is terminated.