International Assignments Research Articles

Now Boarding: International Careers

Taking your career abroad has become increasingly important for a growing number of career paths. But the failure rate is much higher for international assignments. To succeed, professionals who go abroad need to understand risks and how job markets vary from place to place, which are not always clear from the outside.

Personality and expatriate adjustment: A meta‐analysis

We used meta‐analysis to advance our understanding of personality traits as antecedents of expatriate adjustment to international assignments and to test expatriate adjustment as a mediator linking the Five‐Factor Model (FFM) of personality to job performance and turnover intentions (k = 43; N = 7,007). Personality accounted for 20% of the variance in expatriate adjustment. Relative weight analyses indicated that extraversion generally accounted for the greatest proportion of predicted variance, although emotional stability and openness were important predictors as well. This pattern of findings was largely, but not completely, consistent across adjustment dimensions (i.e., general, interactional, work). Consistent with our expectations, meta‐analytic path analysis indicated that adjustment mediated the relationships between the FFM and both expatriate job performance and turnover intentions. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.Practitioner points Personality traits consistent with the Five‐Factor Model accounted for 20% of the variance in expatriate adjustment. Personality traits, particularly extraversion, emotional stability, and openness, can be used for identifying employees who are well suited for international assignments. Career planning in multinational enterprises can make use of personality scores to determine who may be a good candidate for the development for international assignments. Social support interventions (e.g., mentoring) should be provided when on assignment, particularly for introverted expatriates, to facilitate adjustment.

Formal and informal institutions and the expatriation assignment: The case of Japanese subsidiaries in Latin America

Firm internationalization processes involve not only their purposes, host country selection, entry mode strategy, and entry timing, but also the expatriation. Countries differ in their institutional aspects and need to be considered at the forefront of expatriation decisions, particularly in emerging markets. However, the relationship between institutional aspects and expatriate assignments is a relatively unexplored topic in the literature on international business. In response, we investigated the impact of formal and informal institutional aspects on expatriate assignments of foreign subsidiaries in emerging markets. To test our hypotheses, we formed a sample of 147 Japanese subsidiaries operating in Latin America, which we analyzed longitudinally from 2007 to 2012 for a total of 882 observations. Regression analyses of panel data showed that when the formal institutional environment is strong, there is an increase of assignment of expatriates to assist the management and control of the subsidiary. While when the informal institution aspects are high, it tends to decrease the expatriation assignment. Moreover, the effect is contingent upon the firm size and the general management of the subsidiary. In sum, different institutional conditions need to be considered in international assignments.

Yes, they can do it! Exploring female expatriates’ effectiveness

Research has highlighted the under-representation of women in international assignments. While individual and organisational causes for this minor presence have been deeply explored, there is a lack of empirical studies on the effectiveness of female expatriates. Moreover, these studies have focused on a particular facet of effectiveness, and findings are usually based on the perceptions of women of their own work. Additionally, only a few of them include male expatriates, which undermine the possibility of making comparisons.This paper explores gender contingencies on expatriate effectiveness using different groups of measures: adjustment, premature return, performance, commitment and job satisfaction. The author carried out four logit models and, overall, and she did not found significant differences on effectiveness between female expatriates and men ones. Moreover, not-significant differences favour women. Theoretical and practical implications are contemplated.

How you see me, how you don’t: ethnic identity self-verification in interactions between local subsidiary employees and ethnically similar expatriates

Multinational corporations often assign expatriates who share an ethnicity with host country employees (termed ethnically similar expatriates) to work on international assignments. Although sharing an ethnicity with local employees can be an advantage, it also creates a unique identity challenge. In this article, we develop the argument that ethnic similarity might in fact threaten expatriate-local employee interactions if the two parties hold divergent views towards the importance of expatriates’ ethnic identity in their interactions. Drawing on self-verification theory, we explain why people desire to achieve congruence between how they view their own identity and how others view this identity. Subsequently, we identify key cultural and personal constraints affecting expatriates’ efforts to achieve ethnic identity self-verification. We also illustrate how unfulfilled ethnic identity self-verification affects ethnically similar expatriates, local employees and their interactions. Our study, thus, introduces a new angle to understand expatriate-local employee interactions and advances self-verification research by demonstrating the challenges in achieving ethnic identity self-verification when two social parties share an ethnicity.

Expanding horizons and expatriate adjustment

PurposeExpatriate management is a popular theme in the field of international human resource management in light of the fact that expatriates play a crucial role in a MNC’s global operations. The purpose of this paper is to explore how MNCs select, train, deploy and support expatriate managers during and after their international assignment in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).Design/methodology/approachThis qualitative study is based on in-depth interviews with 22 Western expatriate managers who are presently based in the UAE. However, in order the ensure a diverse sample among the participants with regards to their age, professional experience, gender and nationality, purposeful sampling was utilized while selecting the participants.FindingsThe results of the present study cast light on many shortcomings of the overall expatriation process as they are implemented by MNCs in the UAE. Accordingly, there is a pressing need for MNCs in the UAE to develop strategic expatriation processes, involving the following critical factors: the selection of the right person for the right job; specific and relevant pre-departure and post-arrival cross-cultural training (CCT); practical support for the expatriate employees and their trailing spouses in the host country; and lastly, a clear repatriation strategy to mark a successful conclusion of foreign assignments in the UAE.Research limitations/implicationsIt is acknowledged that the results of this purely qualitative study, based on a relatively small sample size, cannot claim to represent the management theories, practices and realities of all the Western MNCs in the UAE. Moreover, these findings narrate the views and perceptions of this particular cohort of expatriate executives with relation to their selection, pre-departure CCT, adjustment in the UAE and the support and repatriation policies utilized by their companies for doing business in the UAE.Practical implicationsThis study points to the fact that technical skills are mostly considered to be the predominant selection criteria for the expatriate selections in the MNCs. Other abilities, such as language skills and relational and perceptual adjustability are considered to be less important and do not feature overtly in the selection criteria for expatriate positions. The results demonstrate that distinctive features of adjustability, which include expatriates’ willingness to communicate, their social orientation, dynamic anxiety resistance and openness ability are all critical to the adjustment in the host country and should be given more emphasis.Originality/valueRegardless of the presence of numerous MNCs in the UAE, it is indeed surprising to see that the topic of the expatriation management process in MNCs in the UAE has received little research attention. The objective of this study is to address this deficiency. Additionally, it is hoped that these findings may also be valuable to MNCs and consultants who are preparing expatriates for international assignments, especially in the Middle East and in particular in the UAE.

The influence of expatriate spouses’ coping strategies on expatriate and spouse adjustment

PurposeDrawing upon Folkman and Lazarus’ (1984) coping framework and interdependence theory (Thibaut and Kelley, 1959), the purpose of this paper is to investigate how expatriate spouses’ coping strategies (problem-focused and emotion-focused) affect expatriate spouse adjustment and expatriate adjustment. In addition, the authors also examine the mediating effect of expatriate adjustment on the spouse coping strategies-spouse adjustment relationship.Design/methodology/approachTo test these relationships, the authors collected multi-source data from 191 expatriate spouses and their expatriate partners living in 37 countries.FindingsThe results revealed that problem- and emotion-focused coping strategies positively and negatively, respectively, influenced all types of spouse adjustment: personal, interaction, and cultural. Both forms of spouse coping also influenced expatriate adjustment. The authors also found that expatriate adjustment mediated the relationship between expatriate spouses’ coping strategies and spouse adjustment.Practical implicationsThe results suggest that multinational organizations should pay equal attention to the adjustment of both their expatriates and their spouses. Both expatriates and their spouses should be included in the initial selection process and in pre-departure training to get well equipped before the international assignment. Training spouses to adopt problem-focused coping strategies would help to facilitate the effective adjustment of both spouses and expatriates.Originality/valueThe research provides one of the first examinations that investigate expatriate spouses’ coping strategies and their impact on expatriate and expatriate spouse adjustment. This research also highlights the interdependency of expatriates and their spouses.

Institutional discrimination of women and workplace harassment of female expatriates

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate workplace gender harassment of female expatriates across 25 host countries and consider the role of institutional-level gender discrimination as a boundary condition. Further, the study investigates the effects of workplace gender harassment on frustration and job satisfaction and general job stress as a moderator.Design/methodology/approachThe sample is comprised of 160 expatriates residing in 25 host countries. The authors test the model using partial least-squares structural equation modeling.FindingsThe results show that female expatriates experience more workplace gender harassment than male expatriates. This effect is particularly pronounced in host countries with strong institutional-level gender discrimination. Moreover, the authors found significant main effects of gender harassment on expatriates’ frustration and job satisfaction. Further, the authors identified a significant association between frustration and job satisfaction. No significant moderation effect of general job stress was found.Research limitations/implicationsThe study’s data are cross-sectional. Future studies are encouraged to use longitudinal research designs. Further, future studies could center on perpetrators of harassment, different manifestations of harassment, and effective countermeasures.Practical implicationsThe study raises awareness on the challenges of harassment of female expatriates and the role of the host country context. Further, the study shows the detrimental effects of gender harassment on female expatriates’ job satisfaction which is a central predictor of variables crucial to international assignments, for example, performance or assignment completion.Originality/valueThe study is among the first endeavors to include institutional-level gender discrimination as a boundary condition of workplace gender harassment of female expatriates, and therefore puts the interplay between macro- and micro-level processes into perspective.

The family in the center of international assignments: a systematic review and future research agenda

Over the past 30 years, the number of studies investigating the family interface of international assignments has risen substantially. While alternative forms of international assignments have been gaining importance, this article focuses specifically on the family interface of traditional organization assigned expatriation as the most prominent and most researched form of global work. Thus far, research has investigated a broad array of topics ranging from the family’s willingness to relocate over family adjustment to work-family balance and utilized a large variety of theoretical foundations. Given this variety in the literature, the field is fragmented and lacks a consistent theoretical argumentation. As a first step to provide some organization, we synthesize the family expatriation literature by developing a comprehensive multi-level framework of the determinants and dimensions of family outcomes. To achieve this objective, we critically assess publications between 1985 and 2017 in peer-viewed international journals, examine theoretical foundations and review the extant literature based on our framework. With this we uncover similarities and inconsistencies in the field, which allows us to deduce an agenda for future research and offer recommendations for practice.

Razvoj karijere u međunarodnom menadžmentu ljudskih resursa

International work assignments are one of the most effective tools for talent development and career advancement in international human resource management. International assignments that are learning-driven have a developmental character, since the aim of these assignments is the development of competencies and career advancement. The aim of the paper is to determine whether undertaking international assignments has a positive impact on long-term careers of employees inside and/or outside their parent companies. Research results show that international assignments, if they are integrated into a long-term career development plan of the employee and if a company properly manages all stages of the process, should have a positive impact on long-term career development of employees within and/or outside of their parent companies, since by undertaking international assignments employees improve their competence base, which makes them more valuable in the international labor market.

Cross-cultural training: a crucial approach to improve the success of expatriate assignment in the United Arab Emirates

Expatriate training and development is progressively turning into a crucial human resource development issue for the multinational corporations (MNCs). The motivation for this study is to explore the impact of cross-cultural training (CCT) on the adjustment challenges of Western expatriate managers in the UAE. The findings indicate that the expatriate managers, who were provided with CCT, adjusted more rapidly in their international assignment in the UAE than the expatriates who were not provided with any CCT. This research has nevertheless demonstrated that not only are MNCs in the UAE failing to provide adequate CCT and support for their expatriates, but they are also providing inadequate CCT and support to the expatriate's accompanying family members. The present study contributes to the discussion about whether MNCs routinely provide their expatriate managers with sufficient CCT. Furthermore, this study has substantial implications for managers and proposes areas for future research in this field.

Cross-cultural training: a crucial approach to improve the success of expatriate assignment in the United Arab Emirates

Expatriate training and development is progressively turning into a crucial human resource development issue for the multinational corporations (MNCs). The motivation for this study is to explore the impact of cross-cultural training (CCT) on the adjustment challenges of Western expatriate managers in the UAE. The findings indicate that the expatriate managers, who were provided with CCT, adjusted more rapidly in their international assignment in the UAE than the expatriates who were not provided with any CCT. This research has nevertheless demonstrated that not only are MNCs in the UAE failing to provide adequate CCT and support for their expatriates, but they are also providing inadequate CCT and support to the expatriate's accompanying family members. The present study contributes to the discussion about whether MNCs routinely provide their expatriate managers with sufficient CCT. Furthermore, this study has substantial implications for managers and proposes areas for future research in this field.

Host country language skills and expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment in the presence of fear of terror

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyze the relationship between host country (HC) language skills, fear of terror, and cross-cultural adjustment (CCA) of expatriates based in host countries with different terrorist threat levels. Design/methodology/approach Integrating the expatriate adjustment framework by Black et al. (1991) with social identity theory-based literature, this study first, theorizes about the effects of both fear of terror and HC language proficiency on CCA and, second, puts forward the moderating effect of the actual terrorist threat level on the relationship between HC language proficiency and fear of terror. Hypotheses are tested using survey data of 116 expatriates based in host countries with different threat levels. Findings HC language proficiency is positively associated with CCA. Yet, it is also positively associated with fear of terror, which is, in turn, negatively related to CCA. Consequently, the beneficial effect of HC language skills on CCA is reduced in environments where expatriates experience significant fear of terror. While the actual threat level has a direct positive effect on fear of terror, it also positively moderates the relationship between HC language proficiency and fear of terror. Originality/value This study extends prior literature on expatriation to dangerous environments by zooming in on a specific type of risk factor associated with international assignments, i.e., terrorism, and by integrating HC language proficiency and fear of terror as important factors, which may influence CCA in contexts in which expatriates experience significant fear of terror.

Why does repatriate career success vary? An empirical investigation from both traditional and protean career perspectives

AbstractTo increase the long‐term benefits of global mobility for multinational corporations, international assignments and intraorganizational careers must be strategically integrated. However, systematic research on former expatriates' career success upon returning to their home organization remains scarce. Hence, this study transfers findings from the career literature to the repatriation context to identify the predictors of objective and subjective repatriate career success. Integrating traditional and protean career theory, we investigate data from 295 repatriates of publicly listed German organizations. Applying partial least squares structural equation modeling, we reveal that objective career success upon repatriation is affected by international assignment characteristics with human capital implications, repatriation support provided by the organization, and the individual's self‐directed career management. Objective career success, organizational repatriation support, and self‐directed career management further affect subjective career success in terms of career satisfaction. Hence, substantiating an impact of both traditional and protean career factors on repatriate careers, our results lay the groundwork for repatriation strategies that combine organizational and individual career management. In this way, multinational corporations can go beyond managing repatriate elites to make better use of all globally experienced employees.

“I might be shot at!” exploring the drivers to work in hostile environments using an intelligent careers perspective

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the factors which influence individuals to take up international assignments in hostile environments (HEs). Using an intelligent careers (IC) perspective, an expanded framework of expatriation drivers to work in hostile contexts is developed that comprises individual, organizational and location-specific factors. In addition, the understanding of career capital acquisition and transfer is refined. Design/methodology/approach A “deviant” case study method to challenge the underlying assumptions of career capital maximization and transfer in global careers is used. To investigate the case, 25 individuals in an international development organization who had to decide whether to work in HEs were interviewed. Findings Five insights into decision drivers and career capital effects associated with postings to HEs are presented. These span all three levels of individual, organizational and location-specific decision factors. Research limitations/implications Due to the case study approach, the usual limitations of qualitative case-based research with respect to generalizability apply. In the conclusions three theoretical implications for the IC framework with respect to career capital acquisition, utilization and temporal effects are outlined. Practical implications A range of practical implications in relation to the selection, talent management, performance and reward approaches as well as repatriation and family considerations in global mobility are explored. Social implications The insights help organizations to design global mobility policies for HEs. In addition, individuals and their families benefit from greater clarity of global mobility drivers in the context of high risks. Originality/value The drivers of individuals to accept assignments to HEs are under-researched. This paper operationalizes and applies a holistic decision to work abroad framework, expands the literature on of the motivations of individuals and develops valuable insights to nuance the IC framework.

Dangerous settings and risky international assignments

Dangerous settings and risky international assignments

The Impact of Family Adjustment in Expatriate Success

Family adjustment to a new country plays a significant role in expatriate success. This paper investigates the reasons behind expatriate failure relative to personal characteristics of partner, family characteristics, and cultural distance. The authors discuss family related issues and contribute to the better understanding on the problems that cause expatriate failure through identity theory and investigate how organizations could support the expatriate experience by taking into consideration the role of the spouse and family, along with cultural distance to the expatriate destination. There are only a few studies that link experiences of expatriate family and partner to international assignment success. We add to this research by examining the spouse and family adjustment process through the use of identity theory. We provide guidelines on the impact of family adjustment in expatriation literature to help organizations better equip both the expatriate employee and their family with sufficient cross-cultural training and social learning opportunities. Our contribution provides a level of analysis on determining expatriation success factors and guiding organizations in facilitating the cultural adjustment of expatriates and their families. The paper provides implications to industry and practice on key success factors needed to reduce failure.

Mentoring in international assignments: a personality traits perspective

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyze the impact of personality and mentorship on expatriates’ psychological well-being. The authors argue that certain personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience) have positive effects on expatriates’ psychological well-being and that these personality traits enable them to derive a greater benefit from mentorship. By doing so, this study identifies for which personality traits which type of mentoring (home or host country mentor) is most beneficial.Design/methodology/approachBased on socioanalytic theory, the authors develop theory-driven hypotheses and test them against data of 334 expatriates.FindingsThe study shows that several personality traits as well as home country mentorship have a significant positive impact on psychological well-being, whereas host country mentorship shows no significant positive effects. Moreover, the study indicates that home and host country mentorship partially moderates the relationship between personality traits and psychological well-being.Originality/valueSince the authors derive important implications for the selection process of expatriates as well as for the implementation of mentoring in multinational corporations, this study is of value for researchers and practitioners in the areas of human resource management and organizational studies.

Seconded National Experts and global mobility—Extending the paradigm

Global mobility is an expanding field of academic research, which identifies an increasing range of modern variants of people working abroad. The community of Seconded National Experts (SNEs) in the institutions, bodies, and agencies of the European Union (EU) is a distinct category of internationally mobile employees, which has so far been neglected. This article assesses the features of this influential group of people and compares them to other communities within the generally recognized expatriate community. The unique nature of SNEs and hence the challenges that need to be considered by human resource (HR) practitioners to ensure they achieve their desired goals at organizational and individual levels are identified. The findings suggest that expatriate typologies should be extended to include this unique community and provide further guidance to HR practitioners. Finally, areas for additional research are offered, with the aim of learning from SNEs to extend international assignment theory.

Repatriation: what do we know and where do we go from here

The unparalleled growth in multinational corporations in recent decades has witnessed a commensurate rise in the deployment of expatriates to foreign subsidiaries and their subsequent repatriation. However, despite considerable progress in our understanding of the expatriation phase of international assignments, the literature on repatriation remains fragmented and incomplete. Plagued with problematic re-adjustments, high turnover rates, and a range of other obstacles, there is an urgent need for an improved understanding of repatriation. This study systematically reviews the repatriation literature over the previous four decades, identifies its major themes, gaps and limitations, and provides a framework that consolidates the literature and prompts future work in several important new directions.