Internal Focus Research Articles

The effect of internal, external, and holistic focus of attention on standing long jump performance in novice and skilled karatekas.

An important application for training instructions is found in directing one's attentional focus. This direction can occur in different internal, external, or holistic forms. However, comparison between these three forms of instructions is a relatively recent development rarely reported at different skill levels or various sports including karate. Therefore, the present study attempts to investigate the effects of three forms of instructions on standing long jump performance in skilled and novice karatekas. The participants were 60 skilled and novice karatekas (all females; mean age: 21.32±1.65) who completed 12 standing long jump trials under different focus conditions (3 trials for each condition: internal, external, holistic and control condition) in a counterbalanced order. Our findings suggested significant main effects, indicating that skilled karatekas outperformed the novices. The findings also showed that regardless of skill levels, the participants exhibited similar performance under external and holistic focus conditions while performance in both of these conditions was superior compared to performance under internal focus and control conditions. No difference was observed between the control and internal focus conditions. It seems that skilled and novice karatekas may benefit from holistic and external focus of attention instructions which enhance their motor performance. Thus, it is recommended that coaches should incorporate these two types of attentional focus instructions into their training sessions.

Exploration of shock–droplet interaction based on high-fidelity simulation and improved theoretical model

Shock–droplet interaction in the early stage involves intricate wave structures. Investigating this phenomenon is inherently challenging due to the fine spatial and temporal scales involved. Past research has suggested that the occurrence of cavitation, marked by a negative peak pressure, is linked to the focus of the reflected expansion wave. In this study, a high-fidelity compressible numerical approach is utilized to replicate the initial phase of shock–droplet interactions. The location of the negative peak pressure is meticulously documented and compared with experimental measurement and numerical results. Results indicate a strong alignment between the negative peak pressure positions identified through numerical simulations and the focal points identified in theoretical models for low gas–liquid wave velocity ratios. However, this alignment is notably disrupted when dealing with higher gas–liquid wave velocity ratios. Further enhancements are made to the theoretical model, enabling a more precise depiction of internal wave structures and focus points, particularly under conditions of high gas–liquid wave velocity ratios. The study delves into the various factors influencing internal pressure fluctuations within the liquid droplet, categorizing them into four phases: the shock wave effect, relaxation effect, fluctuation effect, and expansion wave effect. Analysing the pressure decrease portion reveals that while the converging of the reflected expansion wave leads to a substantial pressure drop, it accounts for only a fraction of the total pressure variation. Consequently, any model predicting negative peak pressure positions must comprehensively consider all contributing factors.

Durability of decisions explained by actor-strategies in games: A multiple case study analysis

Public decision-making contains several decisions taken by multiple actors intended to lead to collective gains. The impact of these decisions varies over time. This paper presents a novel approach to explain the durability, i.e., impact, of decisions in relation to strategies performed by actors involved in infrastructure development projects. The concept of durability is operationalised in terms of actors fulfilling joint aims and creating joint focus. We aim to explain why some decisions have a durable (lasting and joint focus) impact and why other decisions have a non-durable (temporary and no joint focus) impact. Actor-strategies performed in the decision-making process are used to explain the different types of decision impact. After analysing several Dutch Railway projects, we discovered that durable decisions appear when (i) obstructive non-deciding and non-cooperative strategies are dealt with, (ii) responsibilities are clearly divided, (iii) the scope alternates between internal and external focus and coupling of issues happens, and (iv) the design of the decision-making process is made explicit and information asymmetry is managed.

External vs Internal Focus of Attention in Procedural Skills Learning: A Randomized Study.

The Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning theory postulates that directing attention to the intended movement effect or outcome (external focus) is more effective than directing attention to the internal body motion or body part (internal focus). This study compared external vs internal focus of attention as novice students learned ultrasound-guided peripheral cannulation. The authors hypothesized that conditions promoting an external (vs internal) focus of attention would result in better performance on immediate and delayed (retention) testing. The authors conducted a randomized, experimental study from October 2022 to February 2023 comparing external and internal focus using ultrasound-guided peripheral venous cannulation followed by practice using an ultrasound training block. Undergraduate health science students performed 4 practice trials with instructions to focus on the needle tip (external focus) or their hands (internal focus), followed by an immediate assessment and a retention assessment 2 weeks later. The primary outcome was time to successful cannulation. Results were compared using Kaplan-Meier curves and parametric survival analysis regression (accelerated failure time) models. Seventy participants completed the immediate assessment. The external focus group completed successful cannulation a mean of 2.33 times faster (95% CI = 1.47, 3.67; P < .001) than those in the internal focus group (median time, 12.0 vs 29.5 seconds). Results also favored the external focus group during practice, with the external focus group successfully completing the task a mean of 1.83 times faster (95% CI = 1.04, 3.21; P = .04) than the internal focus group. In the retention assessment, the external focus group successfully completed the task a mean of 2.37 times faster (95% CI = 1.19, 4.74; P = .02) than the internal focus group. External focus of attention compared with internal focus of attention improves medical motor skill learning in novice learners.

The Effect of Acute Focus of Attention Instructions on Biomechanical Indexes Associated With Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Prevention

Background and Aims Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury is one of the most common and serious injuries of the knee joint, which accounts for 80% of all knee ligament surgeries. Studies have shown that a significant percentage of this injury (70%) occurs in a non-contact form, usually during activities like deceleration, landing, or side cutting. Studies have shown that focus instructions could improve and promote performance. This study aimed to investigate the acute effect of focus instructions on biomechanical indexes associated with ACL injury prevention. Methods In this research, 24 young football players from the two clubs of the Tehran Premier League, Tehran City, Iran, were randomly divided into two groups: external focus attention (n=12) and internal focus attention (n=12). First, the dynamic postural stability index (DPSI), the peak of vertical, anteroposterior, and mediolateral GRF components, and the rate of loading during the jump-landing movement from a box with 30 cm height were calculated using a force plate with a sampling frequency of 1000 Hz. Then, the internal and external focus instructions were taught to the participants, and the two groups performed a posttest to examine the changes. Statistical methods of repeated measures analysis of variance and paired t test were used to evaluate the changes. Results The results showed significant changes in the vertical component and rate of loading variables in both groups of internal and external focus attention (P≤0.05). However, no significant difference was observed between the two groups in the DPSI, anteroposterior and mediolateral GRF. Conclusion The results of this study showed that acute instructions of both internal and external focus attention can improve landing mechanics and landing-related kinetic variables. It seems that the external focus instructions have increased the motor control of the limb, leading to a further reduction of vertical GRF and the load applied to the lower limb compared to the instructions of internal focus, thus reducing the risk of ACL injury.

Neural Signatures of Competition between Voluntary and Involuntary Influences over the Focus of Attention in Visual Working Memory.

Adaptive behavior relies on the selection and prioritization of relevant sensory inputs from the external environment as well as from among internal sensory representations held in working memory. Recent behavioral evidence suggests that the classic distinction between voluntary (goal-driven) and involuntary (stimulus-driven) influences over attentional allocation also applies to the selection of internal representations held in working memory. In the current EEG study, we set out to investigate the neural dynamics associated with the competition between voluntary and involuntary control over the focus of attention in visual working memory. We show that when voluntary and involuntary factors compete for the internal focus of attention, prioritization of the appropriate item is delayed-as reflected both in delayed gaze biases that track internal selection and in delayed neural beta (15-25 Hz) dynamics that track the planning for the upcoming memory-guided manual action. We further show how this competition is paralleled-possibly resolved-by an increase in frontal midline theta (4-8 Hz) activity that, moreover, predicts the speed of ensuing memory-guided behavior. Finally, because theta increased following retrocues that effectively reduced working-memory load, our data unveil how frontal theta activity during internal attentional focusing tracks demands on cognitive control over and above working-memory load. Together, these data yield new insight into the neural dynamics that govern the focus of attention in visual working memory, and disentangle the contributions of frontal midline theta activity to the processes of control versus retention in working memory.

The Effect of Motor Imagery Practice on an Aiming Task with Attentional Focus Cues

When one directs their attention to an intended effect (external focus of attention, EFOA), motor performance is generally better than when one directs their attention to their own body movements (internal focus of attention, IFOA). However, the effect of attentional focus is unclear when a skill is practiced through motor imagery (MI) in the absence of physical trials. Participants (N = 30, M = 22.33 yrs, SD = 2.69) in the present study completed three physical trials of a reciprocal aiming task before and (24-h) after MI practice. During MI practice, the EFOA (n = 15) and IFOA (n = 15) groups mentally practiced the task with no physical practice with EFOA-MI or IFOA-MI, respectively, for three consecutive days. Our results showed that both groups significantly improved in accuracy (F1,28 = 6.49, p = .017), supporting the benefit of MI in motor skill acquisition. However, a significant effect of attentional focus was not observed (F1.,28 = 0.445, p = 0.51). We discussed two potential explanations: EFOA/IFOA requires physical trials to affect performance, or individuals must use both EFOA and IFOA in the process of creating imagery of the environment and movements, which may obscure the effect of EFOA and IFOA.

The Effects of Holistic, External, and Internal Attentional Focus Instructions on Power and Kinematics of the Hang Power Snatch in Highly Skilled Weightlifters.

Athletes across various sports seek to enhance their power generation and force production by incorporating weightlifting exercises into their training. Therefore, integrating partial weightlifting movements could be sensible due to their simplified execution. Our research aimed to investigate which of four attentional focus strategies (external, internal, holistic, and neutral) would have the greatest impact on performance in terms of power variables for highly experienced weightlifting athletes in a practical training setting. Twelve highly skilled Olympic weightlifters volunteered for the study. They performed 48 single repetitions of the hang power snatch with each of the four attentional focus strategies. Results of the ANOVA did not reveal a significant main effect for maximum velocity, power measurement and displacement. Despite extensive research demonstrating how attentional focus affects performance differently, even among highly skilled populations, the lack of observed effects in our study underscores the challenges of conducting research in applied settings.

From Research to Roach Traps: Practical Considerations for a Home-Based Asthma Program.

Home-based asthma interventions have a significant evidence base as an effective means to address moderate and severe breathing concerns triggered by home conditions. However, the literature lacks logistical and staffing considerations necessary to successfully implement such a program at a governmental level. This practice report and process evaluation outlines practical details and lessons learned during a healthy homes pilot, and how they were addressed in the design of a permanent program. To inform the creation of a permanent home-based asthma intervention at the Alexandria Health Department (AHD) (City of Alexandria, Virginia) and understand the tools and resources necessary for success. Participating households received a health and environmental assessment, followed by cleaning supplies, relevant education, and referrals to partners for services. AHD staff tracked challenges and insights at each step of the intervention. At the end of the pilot, staff worked with the community to identify solutions and design a permanent program. Although the pilot model was constructed based on existing case studies, technical assistance from national experts, and guidance documents, the team still experienced challenges around recruitment, staff support, home visit implementation, and impact evaluation. While pilots and existing literature can be instructive for identifying issues, work with residents and partners to develop a uniquely tailored community program was essential for practical success. Health departments developing new initiatives should consider both the staff and participant experience throughout the creation of administrative and programmatic processes. Testing out draft versions of these processes and materials using internal and external focus groups can identify potential bottlenecks and solutions upfront.

Resolving the Centipede’s Dilemma: external focus distance and expertise in applied, continuous skills

Research has reliably demonstrated that an external focus of attention during skill production enhances performance, retention, and transfer relative to an internal focus on movement mechanics. The optimisation of external focus points, across a range of contexts and performers, is important for effective skill production. Two studies were conducted evaluating the impact of external focus distance in an applied, continuous sports skill (kayak sprinting) with participants of two different expertise levels. In Study 1, using a within-participants design, recreational kayakers (n = 20) were timed sprinting 75 m in a surf ski under proximal external focus, distal external focus, and control conditions. The distal focus (on the finish) (29.75 s) was significantly faster than both other trials (ps < 0.001). The control condition (30.95 s) was significantly faster than the proximal focus (on the boat) (32.37 s) (p = 0.003). The effect size was large (ηp2 = 0.55). In Study 2, specifically trained racers in sprint kayaks (K1s) (n = 16) were timed in a 100 m K1 sprint under the same three conditions as in Study 1. The control condition (28.96 s) was significantly faster than the proximal focus trial (29.83 s) (p = 0.02). The effect size was large (ηp2 = 0.23). There was no significant difference between the distal focus trial (29.03 s) and the other conditions. These findings suggest that focus distance can play a pivotal role in continuous skills. Whilst recreational performers may benefit immediately from a distal focus, this might not be the case for specifically trained athletes. Further, a proximal focus on fitted, passive equipment may be detrimental to performance.

The effect of attentional cues on mechanical efficiency and movement smoothness in running gait: An interdisciplinary investigation

ABSTRACT The aim was to examine the effect of focus of attention cues on foot angle for retraining movement purposes. Twenty (females: 8) rearfoot-striking recreational runners (mass: 72.5 ± 11.8 kg; height: 1.73 ± 0.09 m; age: 32.9 ± 11.3 years) were randomly assigned to an internal focus (IF) (n = 10) or external focus (EF) (n = 10) verbal cue group. Participants performed 5 × 6 minute blocks of treadmill running (control run, 3 × cued running, retention run) at a self-selected running velocity (9.4 ± 1.1 km∙h−1) during a single laboratory visit. Touchdown foot angle, mechanical efficiency, internal and external work were calculated and, centre of mass (COM) and foot movement smoothness was quantified. Linear-mixed effect models showed an interaction for foot angle (p < 0.001, ηp 2 = 0.35) and mechanical efficiency (p < 0.001, ηp 2 = 0.40) when comparing the control to the cued running. Only the IF group reduced foot angle and mechanical efficiency during cued running, but not during the retention run. The IF group produced less external work during the 1st cued run than the control run. COM and foot smoothness were unaffected by cueing. Only an IF produced desired technique changes but at the cost of reduced mechanical efficiency. Movement smoothness was unaffected by cue provision. Changes to foot angle can be achieved within 6 minutes of gait retraining.

Yoga and Benedictine Mindfulness: An Alternative Physio-Spiritual Intervention Towards Restoration of Good Health and Well-Being in the Academe

Many factors are essentially affecting the quality of work and studies in the academe. Deficiency in those factors is inimical to good health and well-being. It includes not just physical injury or disease, but also depression, stress, loneliness, anxieties, and even loss of meaning and purpose in life, which are considered detrimental to working and learning ability. All interventions must be considered just to restore the good health and well-being of workers and students. Using the digital archival method, in-hand data analysis revealed that Yoga and Benedictine mindfulness can become alternative physio-spiritual interventions according to their respective unique traditions. It revealed as well that both disciplinal practices in relevant areas like ethical imperatives, external and internal expressions, focus, aim, time allotment, and benefits, shared elements that can contribute efficaciously to the restoration of good health and well-being of students and workers in the academe. Though, as an intervention, it requires further scientific revelation, at least by yogic and Benedictine tradition, if the practices are done consistently, their assumed benefits are not just temporal but lifelong.

Does having an external focus in immersive virtual reality increase range of motion in people with neck pain?

BackgroundWhen instructing exercises to improve Range of Motion (ROM), clinicians often create an internal focus of attention, while motor performance may improve more when using an external focus. Objectives: Using Virtual Reality (VR), we investigated the effect of tasks with an internal and external focus on maximal ROM in people with neck pain and explored whether this effect was associated with fear of movement. MethodIn this cross-over experimental design study, the cervical ROM of 54 participants was measured while performing a target-seeking exercise in a VR-environment (external focus task) and during three maximal rotation and flexion-extension movements with the VR-headset on, without signal (internal focus task). The main statistical analysis included two dependent T-tests. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to investigate whether the differences in ROM in both conditions were correlated to fear of movement. ResultsMaximal neck rotation was larger in the external focus condition than in the internal focus condition (mean difference: 26.4°, 95% CI [20.6, 32.3]; p < 0.001, d = 1.24). However, there was a difference favouring the internal focus condition for flexion-extension (mean difference: 8.2°, 95% CI [-14.9, −1.5]; p = 0.018, d = 0.33). The variability in ROM was not explained by variability in fear of movement (for all correlations p ≥ 0.197). ConclusionAn external focus resulted in a larger range of rotation, but our flexion-extension findings suggest that the task has to be specific to elicit such an effect. Further research, using a task that sufficiently elicits movement in all directions, is needed to determine the value of an external focus during exercise.

(009) Erogenous Zones of the Vagina and Vulva: An Anatomic Map-Based Study

Abstract Introduction Erogenous sensation zones (ESZs) of the body elicit sexual arousal in response to touch. Prior studies have established general maps of external ESZs, but they did not assess internal surfaces or focus on individual structures of the genitalia. Objective To develop a topographic map of the ESZs of the vulva and vagina. Methods A sample of n=451 sexually active cisgender women (mean age 48.9 ± 15.5 years) were administered an anonymous, online questionnaire via Qualtrics. Respondents selected predefined areas from anatomic illustrations of the vulva and vagina that bring them pleasure when touched during sex. Respondents then rated the importance of each zone to their sexual pleasure on a 10-point Likert scale. Results More respondents selected at least one area of the vulva as an ESZ (82%), as compared to the vagina (59.4%). Of the vulva (Figure 1), the clitoris, peri urethra, and vaginal introitus were the three most frequently selected and highest rated structures. The five ESZs of the vagina (Figure 2) revealed a preference for the superficial anterior region of the vaginal canal. The cervix and posterior areas were selected and rated lower than the superficial aspects. Conclusions The vulva and vagina were associated with enhanced erogenous sensation not only at (but also in regions immediately peripheral to) the clitoris. These ESZs were also rated as "highly important" to sexual pleasure. Notwithstanding these trends, the wide range of selection-frequency and pleasure-importance ratings emphasizes the subjective and varying experience of sexual arousal between individuals. These ESZ maps may enhance patient education, particularly among individuals who suffer from sexual dysfunction or other factors that lend to diminished sexual arousal. Disclosure No.

Effects of attentional focus strategy on drop jump for athletes with different experience levels: Performance, kinetics and kinematics

The attentional focus strategy (AFS) affects drop jump (DJ) performance; however, its effects on DJ kinetics and kinematics are unclear. This study examines the effects of AFS on DJ performance, kinetics and kinematics. Forty collegiate males were divided into a DJ experienced group and a DJ inexperienced group, and they performed two trials of DJs after listening to instructions designed to elicit internal (INT), external (EXT) or neutral (NEUT) focus of attention. In the experienced group, the reactive strength index (RSI) was larger with the NEUT than with the INT. Hip joint torque and positive hip joint power in the concentric phase was smaller with the NEUT than with the INT, and the hip joint angle at the lowest centre of mass was larger with the NEUT than with the INT ( p &lt; .05). In the inexperienced group, RSI was larger with the EXT than with the INT. Further, the hip joint torque in the concentric phase was smaller with the EXT than with the INT; positive ankle joint power was larger with the EXT than with the INT; and the hip joint angles at the lowest centre of mass and take-off were larger with the EXT than with the INT ( p &lt; .05). These results showed that the AFS affected the DJ performance, kinetics and kinematics and suggested that effective DJ training may be achieved with the NEUT for DJ experienced and with the EXT for DJ inexperienced.

Maintain your mind, maintain your focus: Effects of focused attention and intensity in experienced runners

The intensity that people choose for their endurance activities has a major influence on their affective experience. Furthermore, the direction of attention (e.g., internal or external) during endurance activities may significantly influence performance and personal perceptions. Therefore, in the current study, we focus on the interaction between intensity and attentional focus. We aim to address the question of whether adopting an internal (IAF; breathing) or an external attentional focus (EAF; environment), compared to a control condition, leads in differences in speed, heart rate, and affect during running at different intensities in experienced runners. Data from 59 participants were analyzed (Mage: 26.95 (SD = 4.78) years; 34 male; 25 female). Participants ran 9 × 3 min in an outdoor park with three intensity conditions (light, somewhat hard, hard) and three attention conditions (internal, external, control). Intensity, but not attentional focus, impacted affective responses. Results revealed a significant interaction between attentional focus and intensity on heart rate (p < 0.001, ω2p = 0.199): during the somewhat hard intensity, the control focus condition was significantly lower compared the internal and external attentional focus conditions. Additionally, we used exploratory multilevel models (MLM). In the best-fitting MLM of heart rate, 45% of the variance is attributed to differences between athletes, and thus 55% of the variance within athletes. Furthermore, the model indicated that athletes running at a somewhat hard intensity and maintaining an EAF (b = 7.69) or IAF (b = 6.36) had an increase in heart rate compared to the control condition. We speculate that simultaneously monitoring effort and following an attentional instruction was such a difficult task that led to a favorable effect for the control condition. In practice, this could mean that the implementation of an unfamiliar focus of attention, for example, initially requires additional energy expenditure.

Temporal samples of visual information guides skilled interception.

This study investigated whether performance of an interceptive skill requires an intact visual-perception-action cycle. Eleven skilled male Australian rules football athletes (Mage = 17.54, SD = 0.15) were recruited from an elite developmental pathway squad for a within-subject study. Participants were required to kick a ball directly at a goal from a 20-meter distance while wearing a pair of stroboscopic glasses. The glasses were used to create four vision conditions. Condition one kept intact the visual-perception-action cycle with uninterrupted vision of the motor skill. Three other conditions included stroboscopic vision that presented temporal samples of vision, which interrupted the perception-action cycle through progressive increases to intermittent vision occlusion of the motor skill. Goal kick error of ball position relative to a central target line within the goal and number of successful goals kicked were measured. Written report of internal and external focus of attention was also measured after each vision condition. Generalized estimating equation analysis did not reveal a significant decrement in kick target error, nor accuracy of goals scored, across normal to stroboscopic vision conditions. Performance was maintained despite a shift in attention focus from external to internal across normal to stroboscopic vision conditions. These findings have theoretical and practical implications for the visual regulation of skilled interceptive actions.

Using a coproduced educational workshop to change the focus of verbal instructions delivered by professional youth soccer coaches: a case study

ABSTRACT Background The predominant instructional method utilised by soccer coaches are verbal instructions that occur whilst (during) players are executing soccer-skill. However, little is known on the specificity of the information contained within. These verbal instructions can guide the learner to either the performance characteristics of a movement (internal focus) or the intended movement effects (external), with the latter known to facilitate superior motor performance, retention, and transfer. Purpose The aims in the present study were to quantify the focus of concurrent verbal instructions utilised by professional youth soccer coaches during drill-based (i.e. isolated) practice activities, and to modulate how these instructions are delivered in coaching sessions following the engagement in a coproduced evidence-based educational workshop. Method Systematic observation was used pre and post the workshop to quantify the nature of verbal instructions delivered by 5 male coaches (31–47 years of age with 4–24 years of coaching experience) across 34 sessions with players from 8 to 13 years of age. For instructions provided during (concurrent) action-execution, we further quantified whether these instructions were focused on motor performance characteristics (internal) or the intended movement outcome effects (external) using criteria outlined in the revised Arizona State University Observation Instrument. To facilitate behaviour change, all coaches engaged in an educational workshop led by skill acquisition specialists (SAS). The workshop was designed so that educational material related to the principles of skill acquisition, and motor control and learning, were presented using a pedagogical delivery method containing verbal information, data presented in illustrations, and videos. In addition, the results that quantified coaching behaviour during the pre-workshop systematic observation period were presented to coaches as quantitative feedback. To guide the coaches to appraise the quantitative feedback in relation to the delivered educational material, the SAS built an educational environment that encouraged discussion opportunities for coaches to compare and appraise feedback with other coaches and process the feedback in relation to data and concepts regarding skill acquisition. Results and findings The pre-workshop systematic observation data indicated that coaches delivered significantly more (64%) verbal instructions whilst (concurrently) players were executing motor skills, compared to before (15%) or after (21%). Within concurrent feedback, coaches used instructions that had a more internal, compared to external focus of attention. Post-workshop data indicated the coaches significantly changed the utilisation of instructions using a greater proportion of external focus. The data confirms coaches deliver a greater proportion of concurrent verbal instructions during coaching sessions focused training drill-based activities, but engaging in an educational workshop coaches modulated the focus of these instructions from internal to external, indicating behaviour change and an opportunity to facilitate skill acquisition in soccer academy players.

Attentional focus differentially modulates the corticospinal and intracortical excitability during dynamic and static exercise.

Although attentional focus affects motor performance, whether corticospinal excitability and intracortical modulations differ between focus strategies depending on the exercise patterns remains unclear. In the present study, using single- and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation and peripheral nerve stimulation, we demonstrated changes in the cortical and spinal excitability under external focus (EF) and internal focus (IF) conditions with dynamic or static exercise. Participants performed the ramp-and-hold contraction task of right index finger abduction against an object (sponge or wood) with both exercises. They were asked to concentrate on the pressure on the sponge/wood induced by finger abduction under the EF condition, and on the index finger itself under the IF condition. Motor-evoked potential (MEP) and F-wave in the premotor, phasic, or tonic phase, and short- and long-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI and LICI, respectively), and intracortical facilitation (ICF) in the premotor phase were examined by recording surface electromyographic activity in the right first dorsal interosseous muscle. Increments in the MEP amplitude were larger under the EF condition than under the IF condition in the dynamic, but not static, exercise. The F-wave, SICI, and LICI did not differ between focus conditions in both exercises. In the dynamic exercise, interestingly, ICF was greater under the EF condition than under the IF condition and positively correlated with the MEP amplitude. These results indicate that corticospinal excitability and intracortical modulations to attentional focus differ depending on exercise patterns, suggesting that attentional focus differentially affects the central nervous system responsible for diverse motor behaviors.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We investigated attentional focus-dependent corticospinal and intracortical modulations in dynamic or static exercise. The corticospinal excitability was modulated differentially depending on the focus of attention during dynamic, but not static exercise. Although the reduction of intracortical GABAergic inhibition was comparable between focus conditions in both exercises, intracortical facilitation was smaller when focusing on the internal environments in the dynamic exercise, resulting in lower activation of the corticospinal tract.

Cues to land softly and quietly result in acute reductions in ground reaction force loading rates in runners

BackgroundA common gait retraining goal for runners is reducing vertical ground reaction force (GRF) loading rates (LRs), which have been associated with injury. Many gait retraining programs prioritize an internal focus of attention, despite evidence supporting an external focus of attention when a specific outcome is desired (e.g., LR reduction). Research QuestionDoes an external focus of attention (using cues for quiet, soft landings) result in comparable reductions in LRs to those achieved using a common internal focus (forefoot striking while barefoot)? MethodsThis observational study included 37 injured runners (18 male; mean age 36 (14) years) at the OMITTED Running Center. Runners wore inertial measurement units over the distal-medial tibia while running on an instrumented treadmill at a self-selected speed. Data were collected for three conditions: 1) Shod-Control (wearing shoes, without cues); 2) Shod-Quiet (wearing shoes, cues for quiet, soft landings); and 3) Barefoot-FFS (barefoot, cues for forefoot strike (FFS)). Within-subject variables were compared across conditions: vertical instantaneous loading rate (LR, primary outcome); vertical stiffness during initial loading; peak vertical GRF; peak vertical tibial acceleration (TA); and cadence. ResultsVertical LR, stiffness, and TA were lower in the Shod-Quiet compared to Shod-Control p < 0.001). Peak vertical GRF and cadence were not different between Shod-Quiet and Shod-Control. Reductions in stiffness and LR were similar between Shod-Quiet and Barefoot-FFS, and GRF in Barefoot-FFS remained similar to both shod conditions. However, runners demonstrated additional reductions in TA and increased cadence when transitioning from Shod-Quiet to the Barefoot-FFS condition (p < 0.05). SignificanceThese results suggests that a focus on quiet, soft landings may be an effective gait retraining method for future research.