Internal Focus Research Articles

Classroom as Organization: A Review of the Literature

The purpose of this article is to explain the historical evolution of the CAO methodology and analyze the literature base. The intention is to provide a comprehensive summary of the CAO literature around this immersive, empowering, and relational teaching methodology. The paper begins with an overview of the CAO methodology and the historical context in which CAO emerged. Building on this foundation, the paper analyzes the CAO literature by delineating the emergence and expansion of CAO. As more CAO models evolved, various characteristics emerged that distinguished designs from one another: interdependent organization vs. leadered group design, external vs. internal focus, and various adaptations. Finally, the common elements of CAO are identified and analyzed: (1) leverage interdependence, (2) utilize peer assessment, (3) give students both learning and management roles, (4) delegate as a senior manager, and (5) balance structure and ambiguity to support learning. CAO offers a significant change to how we view classroom learning and teaching and offers a dynamic, effective way to bring true organizational learning into the classroom.

THE EFFECTS OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FOCUS ATTENTION ON THE STANDING LONG JUMP AMONG HIGH SCHOOL FEMALE ATHLETES

Coaches and trainers often use verbal cues to help players improve their sport performance and training quality. The type of verbal instructions implemented by a coach may influence how players execute certain tasks. External and internal focus attention are verbal ques that may help athletes improve performance in various tasks such as running and jumping. Purpose: This study attempted to determine if implementing external focus attention ques (EFAQ) improved standing long jump (SLJ) performance when compared to implementing internal focus attention ques (IFAQ). Methods: Female (n=14) high school soccer players completed three testing sessions where three trials of the SLJ were collected (3 sessions with 3 trials each). Prior to each testing session a dynamic warmup was implemented to prepare the participants for the subsequent SLJ trials. During the initial test session, the coach/investigator provided no attention ques (NQ) prior to the SLJ trials. During the other two testing sessions the coach provided either an EFAQ or IFAQ prior to the SLJ trials. Second and third testing session were carried out in a randomized repeated measures fashion. The testing sessions occurred on three different days at the beginning of the week over three weeks. The best SLJ score from each testing session was used for statistical analysis. A paired t-test was used to compare the SLJ scores between the sessions. Gain scores and effect size (EF) differences between the NQ SLJ scores and the EFAQ and IFAQ conditions were also calculated. Results: The best SLJ scores for the test conditions were as follows: NQ=174.0±17.4, IFAQ=169.1±20.7 and EFAQ=178.2±16.4 (cms). The EFAQ SLJ scores were significantly greater than both the IFAQ and NQ SLJ scores (p<0.05). The IFAQ SLJ scores were significantly less than the NQ SLJ scores (p<0.05). The ES difference and gain score between the EFAQ and NQ were: 0.24 SD and 4.2±7.3 cms. The ES difference and gain score between the IFAQ and NQ were: -0.28 SD and -4.9±10.0 cms. Conclusion: Within the parameters of this study, EFAQ improves SLJ scores when compared to either NQ or IFAQ scenarios. Further, IFAQ appears to degrade SLJ performance when compared to a NQ scenario. Article visualizations:

EMERGENT SEMANTICS OF THE UKRAINIAN NOUN AS A DETERMINANT OF ITS DERIVATIONAL CAPACITY

AbstractThe article is an extension of the author's series of publications on derivational paradigmatics of the Ukrainianlanguage. Derivational paradigms of nouns-names of persons according to their internal features constitutethe focus of the article. The structural and semantic characteristics of the units under study are established, andthe linguistic and extra-linguistic factors of influence on the formation of the component structure of derivationalpotential are investigated.ResumeAmong the most urgent problems to be solved in Ukrainian derivatology, there is the problem ofparadigmatic relations of language units in word formation, as represented by the derivational paradigm.This paradigm is the universal systematic way of determining the derivational potential of wordsbelonging to different parts of speech, because it is structured by sets of derivatives in paradigmaticrelations, which are directly motivated by the very same derivational word. The parameters of derivationalparadigms of nouns in the Ukrainian language depend on the derivational capacity of motivationalwords of certain lexico-semantic groups, which is conditioned by a complex of semantic, structural,functional-stylistic and pragmatic factors, with the semantic one being the determinant. The articlefocuses on paradigms of nouns-names of persons according to his / her internal characteristicsand analyzes the dependence of the derivational potentiality of these nouns on their semanticemergence. Two groups of suffixed nouns, i.e. names of persons according to their external and internalcharacteristics, are considered. These quite small groups of nouns are distinguished by the peculiaritiesof their formal grammatical and semantic representation that determine the set of specific derivationalparadigms and their parametric features. The nouns with emergent semantics always contain someadditional components in their meaning structure – semantic extensions, which have no expressionin their formal structure, and have more derivational capacity than the words with non-emergentsemantics. The parameters of a typical derivational paradigm of these nouns are determined andit is established that the semantic peculiarity of the derivational base, namely the emergence of theirsemantics, determines the derivational potential of vertex nouns to form derivatives belonging to oneof the three parts of speech: noun, adjective or verb. The derivational potential of a lexico-semanticgroup of nouns with a weak or zero emergent level, that is those without semantic extensions,is equally analysed. It is shown that they reveal a lower derivational capacity: the lexemes withnon-emergent semantics form mostly single-word derivational paradigms with a limited quantitativerepresentation and that are structured by the absence of derivatives in the adjectival and verbalzones. Their typical derivational paradigm is structured by derivatives of only one substantival zonewith modifying meanings.

Females Have An Increased Sensitivity To Thermal Stress During Matched Exercise Metabolic Heat Production

PURPOSE: Females report greater sensitivity in cold compared to hot conditions. However, it is unclear how thermal sensitivity is affected when the change for internal temperature (ΔTin) and metabolic heat production (MHprod) are matched. This project tested the hypothesis that females have enhanced sensitivity to thermal stress during exercise hyperthermia when ΔTin and MHprod is matched. METHODS: Twenty-two healthy active (7 day activity: 8620±3008 steps/day; VO2max: 49±10 mL/kg/min) adults (11M/11F, 22.4±4.9y, 169±7.6cm, 68.3±13kg) exercised at similar MHprod (M: 7.1±1.5 W/kg, F: 6.9±1.4 W/kg; P=0.32) for 60 min (cycle ergometer) in cool (24.0±0.00C; 14.4±3.6%Rh) and hot (42.3±0.20C; 27.9±5.5%Rh) conditions in random order separated by at least 7 days. The ΔTin, heart rate (ΔHR), and thermal stress indices for comfort (TC, -4 very cold to +4 very hot), sensation (TS, -4 very cold to +4 very hot), perception (TP, 1 so cold I am helpless to 13 so hot I am sick), feeling (TF, +5 very good to -5 very bad), and focus (F, 0 internal focus [bodily sensations] to 100 external focus [external environment]) were measured every 10 minutes. A 2-way repeated-measures analysis of variance on area under the curve was used to examine Interaction (I) and Main Effect (ME) for condition × sex. Values are expressed as means ±SD with significance set at P<0.05. RESULTS: Males and females had similar increase in hot compared to cool for ΔTin (Cool: Δ0.5±0.10C, Hot: Δ1.5±0.60C; ME: condition; P<0.0001) and ΔHR (Cool: 58±15 b/min, Hot: 71±15 b/min; ME: condition; P<0.01). Females reported that TC and TS felt hotter in both conditions (ME: sex; P<0.0001) and both groups increased in hot compared to cool (ME: condition; P≤0.04). Females reported that TS was elevated compared to males in cool compared to hot (I: condition × sex; P<0.005). TP felt hotter in the cool but similar increase in hot for females compared to males (I: condition × sex; P<0.02). Females reported TF was more positive compared to males in hot (I: condition × sex; P<0.0001). Females reported greater external focus in cool compared to males (ME: sex; P<0.0002). CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that sex differences exist for thermal stress. Females perceive thermal stress in hot and cool conditions to a greater extent than males exercising at similar metabolic heat production.

Differential effects of internal versus external focus of instruction on action planning and performance in patients with right and left hemispheric stroke.

Differential effects of internal versus external focus of instruction on action planning and performance in patients with right and left hemispheric stroke.

Examining the Influence of Attentional Focus on the Effects of a Neuromuscular Training Program in Male Athletes.

Ghanati, HA, Letafatkar, A, Almonroeder, TG, and Rabiei, P. Examining the influence of attentional focus on the effects of a neuromuscular training program in male athletes. J Strength Cond Res 36(6): 1568-1575, 2022-Neuromuscular training programs that incorporate lower extremity strengthening, plyometric exercises, balance training, and movement retraining are recommended for anterior cruciate ligament injury prevention; however, there is a need to improve their effectiveness. The purpose of this study was to examine how athletes' attentional focus during training influences the effects of an 8-week neuromuscular training program on hip strength, single-leg landing mechanics, and hop performance. Sixty-six male athletes were randomly allocated to a group that trained with an internal focus, a group that trained with an external focus, or a control group. All athletes completed testing before (baseline) and after (posttesting) the 8-week period. Isokinetic hip strength, hip and knee kinematics and ground reaction forces during landing, and hop distance were examined as part of this study. Analysis of covariance was used to compare posttesting outcomes among the groups while accounting for group differences in baseline performance. The neuromuscular training program resulted in improved hip abduction strength, reduced hip adduction and internal rotation motion during landing, and increased hop distance for athletes who trained with an external focus. However, the program did not seem to influence hip strength, landing kinematics, or hop performance for athletes who trained with an internal focus. Our findings indicate that male athletes may benefit from completing a neuromuscular training program with an external focus vs. an internal focus. Trainers, coaches, and clinicians should consider using instructions that promote an external focus when implementing neuromuscular training programs with male athletes.

Eye behavior predicts susceptibility to visual distraction during internally directed cognition

When we engage in internally directed cognition (e.g., planning or imagination), our eye behavior decouples from external stimuli and couples to internal representations (e.g., internal visualizations of ideas). Here, we investigated whether eye behavior predicts the susceptibility to visual distraction during internally directed cognition. To this end, participants performed a divergent thinking task, which required internally directed attention, and we measured distraction in terms of attention capture by unrelated images. We used multilevel mixed models to predict visual distraction by eye behavior right before distractor onset. In Study 1 (N = 38), visual distraction was predicted by increased saccade and blink rate, and higher pupil dilation. We replicated these findings in Study 2 using the same task, but with less predictable distractor onsets and a larger sample (N = 144). We also explored whether individual differences in susceptibility to visual distraction were related to cognitive ability and task performance. Taken together, variation in eye behavior was found to be a consistent predictor of visual distraction during internally directed cognition. This highlights the relevance of eye parameters as objective indicators of internal versus external attentional focus and distractibility during complex mental tasks.

What lessons learned can we use from Ebola outbreaks in Western Africa 2014 and Democratic Republic of Congo 2018–19 to improve international response?

The 2014 Western African Ebola outbreak challenged the global disaster response system. Various nations, organisations and non-governmental actors supported the response either by sending resources to the region and/or taking an internal focus and preparing to respond to cases potentially appearing in their region. In ether case, these actors responded by implementing protocols based on limited experience. This paper draws on the United Nations response structure and the disaster management cycle to identify the lessons learned from the 2014 outbreak and the more recent cases in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and discusses how these are applicable to a future public health emergency of international concern.

Training athletes with an external attentional focus enhances athletic performance during countermovement jump

Understanding how manipulating variables with vertical jump instruction could influence kinetic variables would be beneficial for trainers and athletes. External focus (EF) instructions have been shown to result in superior motor performance compared to an internal focus (IF). In this study, we tried to determine the effects of verbal instructions using IF and EF of attention on some kinetic characteristics of three different vertical countermovement jumps (CMJs). Ninety male participants (age, 23.9 ± 2 years; height, 178.7 ± 4 cm; and mass, 74.2 ± 7.5 kg) were randomly assigned into IF (n = 30), EF (n = 30), and control groups (n = 30) and were given specific instructions. Subjects performed three kinds of CMJs on a force platform: (1) short countermovement jump (S-CMJ), (2) natural countermovement jump (N-CMJ), and (3) deep countermovement jump (D-CMJ). Landing kinetic (displacement, force, leg stiffness, and center of pressure (COP) to center of mass (COM) displacement) variables from the CMJs were assessed for pre, post training, and retention test (1 week later). The results showed that EF instruction could significantly improve vertical CMJ kinetic variables. Retention was achieved and vertical CMJ kinetic variables were maintained for subjects in the EF group. This study showed that using EF instructions improved vertical CMJ kinetics compared to IF instructions. EF is suggested to apply to CMJs for improving performance based on the exact athletic demands.

Specific internal and external attentional focus instructions have differential effects on rowing performance

Directing an individual to focus their attention on internal or external cues can influence performance of skill-based and endurance sports. The present study examined the effects of switching attention across different types of internal and external attentional foci in a rowing task. Novice rowers (19 male, 47 female) focussed attention on one of four different internal cues (or one of four different external cues) at discrete time points while completing a row on an ergometer. Overall, a focus on internal cues resulted in longer distance, higher power output, and higher heart rate than a focus on external cues. However, for the internal condition a focus on arm and leg muscles was associated with higher performance than a focus on breathing. For the external condition, a focus on exerting force on the handle produced higher performance than a focus on the movements of the handle or seat or on the sounds of the ergometer. Global instructions to focus internally or externally influenced performance, but the specific effects within these broad categories were also variable. The advice given to athletes and recreational exercises should consider both the broad attentional focus direction and the specific cues of the task to which attention is directed.

Attentional focus influences sample entropy in a balancing task.

An external focus of attention has consistently been associated with improved balance (Wulf, 2013). Recent work has considered whether changes in postural control entropy, a measure of repeated movement patterns, could be a factor influencing this benefit. Rheaet al. (2019) reported that during quiet standing sample entropy when using an external focus was increased relative to baseline, whereas an internal focus did not differ from baseline. External and internal focus conditions did not differ from each other, but the authors speculated this difference may emerge with more complex balance tasks. The purpose of the present study was to determine if sample entropy and standard deviation of angular displacement differed when balancing on a stability platform while using an external, internal, or holistic focus. Young healthy adults (N=36) completed three familiarization trials on the stability platform, followed by three trials each using an external focus (focus on keeping markers level), an internal focus (focus on keeping feet level), and a holistic focus (focus on feeling calm and stable). All trials lasted 20s, and focus condition order was counterbalanced. Angular displacement of the platform was recorded at a frequency of 25Hz, and sample entropy and standard deviation of angular displacement were calculated using a custom MATLAB code. Separate mixed ANOVAs for each dependent variable were used to assess differences due to focus and condition order, and Sidak post-hoc tests were used for pairwise comparisons. Results indicated an external focus led to higher sample entropy than a holistic focus (p=.001) and internal focus (p=.031). Standard deviation trended toward lower values with an external focus, but was influenced by a Focus x Order interaction. These results suggest that an external focus may promote more adaptive movement adjustments relative to a holistic focus and an internal focus.

T134. THE ROLE OF THE DEFAULT MODE NETWORK IN SCHIZOPHRENIA AND AUDITORY VERBAL HALLUCINATIONS – AN INVESTIGATION OF DYNAMIC FMRI RESTING STATE CONNECTIVITY

BackgroundThere is a wealth of evidence showing aberrant functional connectivity (FC) in schizophrenia but with considerable variability in findings across studies. Dynamic FC is an extension of traditional static FC, in that such analyses allow for explorations of temporal changes in connectivity. Thereby they also provide more detailed information on connectivity abnormalities in psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia.MethodsThe current study investigated dynamic FC in a sample of 80 schizophrenia patients and 80 matched healthy control subjects. Furthermore, relationships with auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH), a core symptom of schizophrenia, were explored. Two measures of AVH were used, one measure of current AVH severity assessed on the day of scanning, and one trait-measure where AVH were assessed repeatedly over the course of one year.ResultsCompared to healthy controls, schizophrenia patients showed increased dwell times in states with high connectivity within the default mode network (DMN). Current AVH severity did not show a significant relationship with dynamic FC. However, the trait-measure of AVH proneness over one year showed a significant relationship with dynamic FC. Patients with high AVH proneness spent less time in connectivity states characterized by strong anti-correlation between the DMN and task-positive networks.DiscussionThe results provide further evidence for a DMN dysfunction in schizophrenia, which could be linked to thought disturbances in relation to an increased internal focus of cognitive processing. The effects of AVH proneness on dynamic FC support theoretical models of AVH which have proposed an instability of the DMN and impaired cognitive control in AVH patients. The results also point to AVH proneness as a potential marker for identifying distinct subgroups of schizophrenia patients.

Competence of Low-High Academic Control Focus and Its Place in Academic Success

The main purpose of the study is the role of internal and external academic control focus on the success of prospective teachers. The study, which was designed to determine the role of academic control focus in general academic success (GPA) and competence, was carried out with 180 pre-service teachers, 44 of which are male and 136 are female. In order to make the focus of internal and external academic control categorically low and high, the median values are divided into two, and low and high internal and external academic control focus groups are obtained. Correlation analysis to examine the relationship between variables, t-test to determine whether GPA and competency variables differ from low and high internal and external academic control focus groups, to determine whether the t-test, GPA and competency variables predict low and high internal and external academic control focus groups. Binomial Logistic Regression analysis was performed. As a result of the analysis, it is seen that the external academic control focus has a negative relationship with GPA and competence, and the internal academic control focus has a positive relation with competence. According to the results of the T test, GPA and competency were higher in the external academic control focus groups, while competence was higher in the internal academic control focus group. According to the results of the Binomial Logistic Regression analysis, it was seen that competence predicted both internal (towards high group) and external (towards low group) academic control focus, while GPA did not predict both internal and external academic control focus groups. It is seen that being in the low and high internal and external academic control focus group in the research results, the pre-service teachers differed in their belief in success and their academic success.

Sensory focused exercise improves anxiety in Parkinson's disease: A randomized controlled trial.

Anxiety has been implicated as one of the greatest influences on quality of life in Parkinson’s disease (PD). The etiology of anxiety is unclear, although previous work suggests that anxiety may be linked to sensory deficits that cause uncertainty in movement. Thus, the current study examined whether focusing attention on sensory feedback during goal-based exercise has the potential to provide benefits to anxiety in PD. Thirty-five participants with PD were randomized to either a Sensory Attention Focused Exercise (SAFEx) (i.e. internal focus of attention, n = 18) or Sham Exercise control (i.e. external focus of attention, n = 17) and completed 33 one-hour attention-based exercise sessions over 11-weeks. Before and after the program (pre and post), participants completed the Parkinson Anxiety Scale (PAS) questionnaire. The PAS includes three anxiety sections: persistent, episodic, and avoidance. Changes in the total PAS score and within each section of the PAS were subjected to two-factor mixed repeated measures ANCOVA. Significant group by time interactions demonstrated that from pre to post, total PAS scores (p = 0.007) and episodic anxiety scores (p = 0.010) significantly decreased in the SAFEx group only (ΔTotal PAS = -5.2, F(1,27) = 5.41, p = 0.028, ηp2 = 0.17; ΔEpisodic Score = -1.8, F(1,27) = 6.89, p = 0.014, ηp2 = 0.20). In conclusion, focusing attention on sensory feedback while completing goal-based exercises may provide significant benefits to improving anxiety in PD. As such, sensory attention focused exercise may be a critical adjunct therapy for improving anxiety, and ultimately quality of life in people with PD.

The Effects of Attentional Focus Instruction on the Performance of a Whole-Body Coordination Task in Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder

Background and aimPrevious studies have supported the advantages of an external focus of attention (EFA) relative to an internal focus of attention (IFA) in healthly adults. However, effects of attentional focus instructions on skill performance and acquisition in children are equivocal. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of attentional focus instructions on performance of a whole body coordination task in children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD). MethodsChildren with DCD (n = 18) and typically developing (TD) children (n = 21) (9-10 years) were asked to perform 3 countermovement vertical jumps in the IFA (Concentrate on the swing of your arms), EFA (Concentrate on getting as close to the ceiling as possible), and control conditions. ResultsThe results showed that regardless of children’s motor development proficiency, the jump height and vertical take-off velocity (VTO) were higher in EFA relative to both IFA and Con conditions. In addition, VTO was significantly higher in the Con relative to IFA condition. ConclusionThe results of the current study showed that EFA relative to IFA instructions could enhance the neuromuscular activation of dynamic contractions of the leg muscles in both children with and without DCD. The findings suggest that the beneficial effects of EFA relative to IFA instructions on children’s motor performance is identical across children with different levels of motor proficiency.

Migration intentions: a sign of a weak nation brand? A multi-group analysis between China and Pakistan

PurposeThis study aims to focus on the internal audiences of a nation brand, i.e. the citizens of a country and is built on the theoretical premise that migration intentions (MIs) prevalent among the skilled and educated elite of a home country signifies a weak nation brand.Design/methodology/approachThrough the theoretical support of the migration motive theory of push and pull (Richmond, 1993), nation branding theory (Anholt, 2006) and the two-construct country image model (Roth and Diamantopoulos, 2009), the authors constructed a framework that incorporates the relationship between affective and cognitive country images of both home and migrant country and migration motives and intentions to migrate.FindingsThe findings reveal that push and pull factors are strongly affected by the images of the home country and the migrant country, respectively and strong home country images are associated with weak MIs, while the opposite is true if a strong migrant country image is possessed. Further, evidence of the dominance effect of cognitive images in complex decision-making environments such as migration was also provided. Moreover, the results also suggest significant differences between Chinese and Pakistani respondents.Practical implicationsThis study guides nation branding researchers by opening up a debate on self-images and conceptually independent attitudinal constructs of country image. For policymakers in developing countries, the results reveal that they should primarily strengthen their internal brands and focus on cognitive images to stem the flow of brain drain.Originality/valueThis study takes the traditional country image debate to migration discourse, moves it forward, contextualizes it as a function of a nation’s brand strength and provides evidence that confluence of migration studies with the theoretical stream of nation branding can provide significant explanations for migrant behavior.

Impact of Internal Branding on Student Engagement: Insights from a South African University

This study explores how internal branding affects the levels of engagement with the brand by HEI students. The research setting for this study was the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, (Wits) a leading Commonwealth University in South Africa. Most studies on internal brand focus on employees and have been conducted in the developed word. This study focuses on students as the stakeholder and takes place in an emerging market. Assembling internal branding and student engagement from a theoretical perspective, the findings run counter to the known theory by showing that students can be engaged and loyal to the institution without the University having a formal internal branding program. The lack of internal branding had no impact on academic commitment but has a negative impact on brand engagement. Some reasons for this are suggested.

The Effects of Focus Attention Instructions on the Movement Kinetics, Muscle Activation and Performance during Resistance Exercise

The aim of this study was to compare kinetics, muscle activation and performance during resistance exercises between internal focus attention instructions, external focus attention instructions and control condition. Thirty (n = 30, mean age = 21.40 ± 0.93 years old) healthy men were recruited as participants and were asked to perform resistance exercises in three conditions; i) internal focus, ii) external focus and iii) control (no focus attention instruction). Participants performed 10RM squat and deadlift assessment in which kinetics, muscle activation and number of repetitions completed were recorded and analyzed during the exercises. Findings of this study revealed that external focus attention instruction produced greater force production and number of repetitions completed while at the same time lower muscle activity compared to the internal focus conditions. To conclude, external focus attention instructions were suggested to be adopted during resistance training due to its effectiveness to make movement more economic while producing greater performance in which will be more advantages for future adaptations.

Attentional Focus and the Effect on Change-of-Direction and Acceleration Performance.

McNicholas, K and Comyns, TM. Attentional focus and the effect on change-of-direction and acceleration performance. J Strength Cond Res 34(7): 1860-1866, 2020-The purpose of this study was to investigate whether changing the focus of attention of field sport athletes would affect their performance for a change-of-direction (COD) and acceleration task incorporating diagonal cutting movements of less than or equal to 90°, specific to the demands of field-based sports. Seventeen male college students were recruited to perform 9 trials each of a change-of-direction and acceleration test using verbal instructions designed to induce a neutral (NEU), internal (INT), and external (EXT) focus of attention. Qualitative data were collected and assessed by use of questionnaires to determine whether subjects performed the trials using the prescribed focus of attention. Repeated-measures analysis of variance revealed that the EXT experimental condition was significantly faster (p ≤ 0.001) than both the NEU and INT experimental conditions. In addition, the NEU and INT experimental conditions were not significantly different (p ≤ 0.001). Questionnaire responses provided qualitative data that showed subjects performing in the INT and EXT conditions invoked the desired focus of attention 47 and 82% of the time, respectively. Furthermore, the qualitative data also showed that subjects performing in the NEU condition did not use an explicit INT or EXT focus of attention 82% of the time. The results indicated that athletes can enhance their performance by invoking an EXT focus of attention while performing complex motor skills such as COD and acceleration. Practitioners and coaches could direct their verbal instructions toward the movement effects of their athlete's actions to achieve this.

The Effects of Using Imagery to Elicit an External Focus of Attention

ABSTRACT Background: An external focus of attention has been shown to be superior to adopting an internal focus of attention in a variety of motor skills. Purpose: To examine the efficacy of directing attention externally toward an imagined object when performing the standing long jump. This form of practice was compared to a group of participants that practiced the same motor skill while directing their attention toward an object that was physically present in the practice environment. Method: All participants performed a series of standing long-jumps on a rubber mat. Participants were randomly assigned to either an external focus condition where they were instructed to jump as close as possible to a cone that was directly in front of them. Or they were assigned to an imagery condition in which they were instructed to jump toward an imagined cone. Following acquisition trials, a 24-hr retention and transfer test was completed by all participants. Results: Significant improvement was demonstrated by both groups during acquisition, retention and transfer phases compared to the baseline measure. However, no significant differences were observed between the two experimental conditions. Conclusion: The findings of this experiment demonstrate that attention directed externally toward a physical object and an imagined object has a similar effect.