Internal Focus Research Articles

External relative to internal attentional focus enhances motor performance and learning in visually impaired individuals

Background: Research has demonstrated the advantages of an external relative to internal focus of attention for enhancing motor performance and learning across diverse tasks, contexts and populations. However, research has yet to examine whether this finding holds true for individuals who have a major visual impairment in discrete and locomotion-based continuous motor tasks.Methods: In experiment 1, twenty-four visually impaired participants were asked to kick a soccer ball with their dominant foot to a target 7 meters away. Participants performed 10 trials within an internal focus (concentration on inside of the foot), external focus (concentration on the ball), and control (no focus instructions) conditions, in a counterbalanced order. In experiment 2, thirty-nine visually impaired adults were asked to ride a rehabilitation Pedalo for a distance of 7 meters. Participants were randomly assigned to either an internal focus (focus on the feet), external focus (focus on the platform), or control (no focus instructions) group. Retention and transfer tests were conducted on day 2.Results: An external focus resulted in more accurate kicks and faster pedalo movement times compared to an internal focus.Conclusions: These findings indicate that visual information does not mediate external focus benefits for motor performance and learning.Implications for RehabilitationPractitioners should use instructions that encourage visually impaired individuals who are going through rehabilitation to adopt an appropriate focus of attention for enhancing motor performance and learning of discrete or locomotion-based motor skills.Instructions that foster an external focus, relative to an internal focus, enhances performance of both discrete and continuous motor skills in individuals with visual impairment.

Effects of attentional focus on movement coordination complexity

Attentional focus affects performance and learning of motor tasks. An external attentional focus (on the effects of movement) can lead to more efficient and effective movements compared to an internal focus (on body movement itself). According to the “constrained action hypothesis”, an external focus facilitates fast and reflexive movement control while an internal focus leads to disruption of automatic coordination processes. Such disruption should be apparent in the complexity of movement. In this study, multiscale entropy measures were used to investigate if the external focus is related to superior coordination complexity compared to internal focus. Twenty participants were divided in two groups that balanced over an unstable platform in fourteen trials over two days, either with internal or external focus of attention instructions, followed by seven retention trials on the third day. Multiscale entropy measures were used to quantify complexity of motions of the platform, the participant, and the composite of participant and platform motions. Results were contrary to expectations. For the external focus group, despite better overall performance, multiscale entropy values of participant and composite motions were lower in some scales compared to the internal focus group, especially in the first and last days. This may be consistent with previous findings that predictability increases during learning of a balance task. Results also indicate the need to identify the correct physiological interpretation of single or multiscale entropy measures. Further investigation is needed to establish if entropy differences are causally related to performance and learning advantages of the external focus.

Rumination related activity in brain networks mediating attentional switching in euthymic bipolar patients

IntroductionMood disorder patients have a tendency to be more internally oriented, with difficulties in switching attentional focus, which might result in the generation of negative thoughts, such as rumination. The present study explored self-referential neural activity correlating with rumination tendency and attentional switching capacity in bipolar disorder.MethodsTwenty euthymic bipolar patients and twenty matched healthy controls underwent a novel introspection task of switching between internally and externally focused attention during a word processing task, while their brain activity was assessed using functional MRI.ResultsDuring internal focus, higher activity in self-related regions (mPFC, PCC) was found in euthymic bipolar patients as compared to controls, verifying the hypothesis of exaggerated recruitment of self-referential processes in bipolar subjects. Switching from internal to external focus revealed higher parahippocampal activity in patients as compared to controls, additionally more pronounced when switching away from negative as compared to positive self-referential information. Furthermore, rumination traits correlated with activity in PCC, subgenual and pregenual ACC, and bilateral anterior insula during repetition of internal focus, specifically when evaluating negative words. Finally, we used ACC subregions that correlated with tendency to ruminate as seeds for a whole brain connectivity analysis. Patients showed stronger connectivity between sgACC (seed), pgACC, dPFC, and anterior insula during internal focus, whereas pgACC (seed) was more strongly connected to parahippocampal gyrus when switching from internal to external focus.ConclusionsThese findings reveal an overactive rumination-related network whose activity is enhanced by negative information in euthymic bipolar patients, which could possibly contribute to impaired switching of thoughts away from internal attention.

Revisiting the Relationship Between Internal Focus and Balance Control in Young and Older Adults.

Research highlights the detrimental effect that directing too much conscious attention toward movement can have on postural control. While this concept has received support from many studies, recent evidence demonstrates that this principle does not always translate to aging clinical populations. Given the increasing clinical interest in this topic, the current study evaluated if the original notion (that an internal focus results in compromised balance performance) is upheld in young and older adults during a challenging balance task where we are able to objectively corroborate changes in attentional focus; using an electroencephalography (EEG) method previously identified as an objective indicator of conscious movement control. This method assesses the neural coherence, or “communication,” between T3 (verbal-analytical) and Fz (motor-planning) regions of the brain. Thirty-nine young and 40 older adults performed a challenging balance task while holding a 2-meter pole under two randomized conditions: Baseline and Internal focus of attention (directing attention internally toward movement production). Results showed that young adults demonstrated increased EEG T3-Fz coherence in conjunction with increased sway path during the Internal focus condition. However, no significant differences were observed in older adults between conditions for any measure. The current study provides supporting evidence for the detrimental effect that adopting an Internal focus can have on postural control—especially in populations able to govern these processes in a relatively “automatic” manner (e.g., young adults). However, this work illustrates that such observations may not readily translate between populations and are not robust to age-related changes. Further work is necessary to examine mechanisms underlying this clear translational issue.

Možnosti využití teorie OPTIMAL ve školní tělesné výchově a výuce sportovních her

The objectives of the prepared article are to give the readers a brief account of the main ideas and foundations stones of a relatively new theory of motor learning, OPTIMAL, formulated by Gabriele Wulf and Rebecca Lewthwait, and also to point out the possibility of its application in school physical education lessons, particularly in teaching sports games. The authors critically assess “traditional” teaching of new locomotor skills stressing the frequent neglect of the internal motivation of pupils and support for their autonomy. According to them, in traditional teaching practice, internal focus of attention is imposed on the pupils, i.e. concentration on the movements of the body or its parts. They claim that the result of such an approach is learning that is not sufficiently effective. On the contrary, they recommend that the teachers should consciously raise the pupils’ expectations, support the need for autonomy by their more active involvement in the teaching process and focus their attention externally, towards the goals of the task. It seems that the practical application of the OPTIMAL theory in school physical education lessons is feasible. It is, above, all the support for autonomy that follows the current trends. However, we expect high demands set on the organization of the teaching process and on the teachers themselves. Future testing in the school practice is necessary. The TGFU (Teaching Games for Understanding) didactic paradigm has been successfully used in teaching sports games for a number of years. Due to the similarity of some principles of the OPTIMAL theory and this paradigm, it is apparent that the new theory of motor learning could be successful, too, particularly in teaching the fundamentals of game skills in sports games. This assumption, however, should also become a subject of testing in the future.

Electromyographic Effect of Using Different Attentional Foci During the Front Plank Exercise.

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to examine whether an internal focus on different core muscles during the isometric prone plank exercise increased muscle activity. Twenty university students performed the following five different conditions: regular prone plank (external focus) and prone plank with an internal focus on different muscles. Surface electromyography signals were recorded for the upper rectus abdominis, lower rectus abdominis, external oblique, and lumbar erector spinae. For the upper rectus abdominis, an internal focus on using any muscle increased activity. For the lower rectus abdominis, internal focus on any muscle except the lumbar erector spinae increased activity. No changes were found for external oblique and lumbar erector spinae activity. Upper rectus abdominis and lower rectus abdominis activities increased during an internal focus on the abdominal muscles. external oblique and lumbar erector spinae activities were nonaffected by an internal focus on any muscle.

The effects of external and internal focus of attention on motor learning and promoting learner’s focus

Summary Study aim: External focus of attention is considered as a critical factor in the OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. This theory proposes that external focus of attention facilitates motor performance and learning because it promotes focusing on the task goal. However, the effects of external focus of attention on focusing on the task goal are not well understood. The aim of this study was, therefore, to investigate the effects of an external focus of attention versus an internal focus of attention on motor learning and promoting focus of the learner on the task goal. Material and methods: Thirty-six right-handed male students (mean age 21.16 ± 1.85 years old) with no prior experiences with the motor task were randomly assigned to three groups: external focus, internal focus, and control groups. Participants were asked to throw darts at a target during an acquisition phase (10 blocks of six trials each) and during subsequent retention and transfer tests. Throwing accuracy and focus on the task goal were measured as dependent variables. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures as well as a one-way ANOVA was used to analyze the differences in accuracy scores between groups during the acquisition phase as well as retention and transfer tests, respectively. The significance level was set at p < .05. The author supervised all phases of the experiment. Results: The results showed that adopting an external focus promoted a focus on the task goal and resulted in significantly better motor learning than adopting an internal focus and control conditions (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The findings of the present study provided support for the propositions of the OPTIMAL theory and showed that adopting an external focus of attention promotes focus of the learner on the task goal. The results are discussed in terms of benefits of external focus instructions for facilitating motor learning and goal-action coupling.

Sequential Coherence: A Novel Determinant of Open Innovation Performance

Despite its popularity as a strategy to accelerate innovations there is evidence that open innovation does not always increase innovation performance. Extant literature provides inconsistent and inconclusive arguments in respect of the relationship between open innovation practices and innovation performance. Existing theories mostly have an internal focus and fall short of explaining why some firms succeed in open innovation initiatives and why others fail. Open innovation is about knowledge flows. We argue that boundary conditions matter in innovation performance and sequential coherence can explain why some succeed while others fail in open innovation. A qualitative inquiry we made reveals that sequential coherence that facilitates the knowledge transfer at boundary level influences innovation performance in open innovation initiatives. Sequential coherence is measured through the push and the pull effects by willingness and ability of the participants of teacher firm and the preparedness and ability of the participants from the student firm respectively. We trust that our findings bridge a gap in open innovation literature. These initial findings could be generalized through a quantitative study with larger samples. Managerial implications of the finding is that ability to scan the entire chain of knowledge flow across boundaries and taking corrective measures for any bottlenecks or hindrances observed can bring better results from open innovation initiatives. Further, sequential coherence leads to multiple research opportunities in furthering our knowledge in open innovation.

Combining Attentional Focus Strategies: Effects and Adherence

This study explored the influence of instructions that combine internal and external foci. Fifty-one subjects were randomly divided into 3 groups: internal only, external only, and a combined internal and external focus. The task was the overhand lacrosse throw for accuracy from a stationary position to a target located on a wall 6 m away. Following a 10-trial pretest, instructions were provided according to attentional focus group assignment and participants performed 8 blocks of 10 practice throws. Following a 2-day period of no practice, retention and transfer tests were performed. A significant Group × Block interaction was found, F (14, 336) = .57, indicating that the external focus group was more accurate than the combined focus group on the first and second practice blocks. This external focus benefit diminished in later trials and no significant differences for group were found for retention or transfer. Participants performed significantly better on the retention test than on the pretest. Subjects were also asked to estimate what percentage of the practice trials they actually focused on the instructions provided. Responses ranged from 10% to 95% (M = 64%), raising questions regarding how learners use instructional information.Subscribe to TPE

The content of the factors the organisation of the preliminary investigation bodies in the sphere of economics investigation of corruption crimes

The organisation of the investigation of crimes aimed at achieving concrete results in the important sphere of relations is influenced by both individual factors of internal and external focus, and their combination, at the same time scientific literature analysis gives grounds to state that in most cases the question of the interpretation of the term "factor". It is not considered, or considered fragmented. In connection with this, by analysis of law enforcement and the maintenance of regulations in this area of relationships, as well as through the formal – logical, semantic and other methods, the author revealed, systematised the factors that determine the specificity of the organisation of crime investigation of corruption in the economic sphere, and described in detail some of them. On the basis of a systematic approach by the example of the activities of the investigating authorities propose a theoretical model of the factors the organisation of their work, the inherent organisational-managerial structure of any level the content of which, is a complex system of circumstances that have a significant impact on the maintenance of investigation corruption crimes in the economic sphere. This system consists of four subsystems – the legal, informal (communication), internal (organisational) and external (environmental factors).

An external focus of attention promotes flow experience during simulated driving

ABSTRACTAchieving a state of flow is associated with positive experiences and improved sporting performance (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Focused attention is a fundamental component of the flow experience, but to date there has been little investigation of whether attention plays a causal role in creating flow, or is a product of it. Consequently, this study aimed to test the effect of an attentional focus manipulation on flow and performance in a simulated driving task. It was predicted that an external focus would lead to improved visuomotor control, greater flow experience and improved performance. Thirty-three participants from a student population completed the driving task under both internal and external focus instructions. Eye movements and steering wheel movements were recorded during each race. Participants reported greater flow experience (p < .001, d = 1.78) and enhanced outcome expectancies (p = .02, d = 0.41) under external, compared to internal focus conditions, however, there was no effect on visuomotor control (gaze-steering coordination and steering entropy) or racing performance (ps > 0.28). These findings suggest that adopting an external focus of attention may contribute to positive performance states such as flow.

How to Serve Faster in Tennis: The Influence of an Altered Focus of Attention and Augmented Feedback on Service Speed in Elite Players.

Keller, M, Kuhn, YA, Lüthy, F, and Taube, W. How to serve faster in tennis: the influence of an altered focus of attention and augmented feedback on service speed in elite players. J Strength Cond Res 35(4): 1119-1126, 2021-Different approaches, such as providing augmented feedback (AF) or adopting an external focus of attention (EF), have been shown to directly enhance performance in recreational athletes. Furthermore, research has shown that combining AF with EF (AF + EF) results in superior performance compared to AF and EF alone. Here, we tested the influence of AF, EF, AF + EF, and an internal focus of attention (IF) on service speed in elite tennis players. High-level national tennis players (19.2 ± 3.7 years) were asked to serve flat serves to a target zone with maximum speed. With respect to service speed, a significant main effect of condition was found (p ≤ 0.001). Post hoc comparisons revealed faster serves for AF compared to control serves without instruction/feedback (p < 0.01) and compared to EF (p < 0.05), whereas no significant difference was found between EF and IF (p = 0.81). The fastest service speeds were found in the AF condition, whereas the combination of AF + EF did not further promote performance. The number of serves landed in the target zone did not differ between conditions (p = 0.17). Thus, no speed-accuracy trade-off was found, indicating that enhanced service speeds did not result in less serves landed in the target zone. Augmented feedback seems most beneficial to instantly enhance tennis serve performance. In contrast to previous studies with recreational sportsmen, EF did not differ from IF, providing further evidence that expertise level and task-relevant instructions mediate the influence of attentional focus on motor performance.

Investigating Multiple Streams of Consciousness: Using Descriptive Experience Sampling to Explore Internally and Externally Directed Streams of Thought.

Research into resting-state cognition has often struggled with the challenge of assessing inner experience in the resting state. We employed Descriptive Experience Sampling (DES), a method aimed at generating detailed and high-fidelity descriptions of experience, to investigate how experience in the resting state can vary between internal, external, and multiple simultaneous streams. Using a large body of experiential and brain activation data acquired from five DES participants, independent raters classified sampled moments of experience according to whether they were internally directed, externally directed, or contained elements of both at the same time. In line with existing models, comparison of internal with external experience samples identified a network of regions associated with the default mode network. Regions of interest resulting from the whole-brain contrasts successfully predicted independent raters’ forced-choice categorizations of samples for which experience had a simultaneous internal and external focus. The present study is distinctive in tying neural activations in the resting state to detailed descriptions of specific phenomenology, and in demonstrating how the DES method enables a particularly nuanced analysis of moments of experience, especially their ability simultaneously to incorporate both an internal and an external focus. The study represents an integration of rich phenomenology and characterizations of brain activity, tracing interpretive paths from phenomenology to neural activation and vice versa.

Individual optimal attentional strategy during implicit motor learning boosts frontoparietal neural processing efficiency: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study.

IntroductionOptimal focus of attention is a crucial factor for improving motor learning. Most previous studies have shown that directing attention to movement outcome (external focus; EF) is more effective than directing attention to body movement itself (internal focus; IF). However, our recent studies demonstrated that the optimal attentional strategy in healthy and clinical populations varies depending on individual motor imagery ability. To explore the neurological basis underlying individual optimal attentional strategy during motor learning tasks, in the present study, we measured frontoparietal activities using functional near‐infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS).MethodsTwenty‐eight participants performed a visuomotor learning task requiring circular tracking. During the task, the participants were required to direct their attention internally or externally. The individual optimal attentional strategy was determined by comparing the after‐effect sizes between the IF and EF conditions.ResultsFifteen participants showed larger after‐effects under the EF condition (External‐dominant), whereas the others showed larger after‐effects under the IF condition (Internal‐dominant). Based on the differences in neural activities between Internal‐ and External‐dominant groups, we identified the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Brodmann area 46) and right somatosensory association cortex (Brodmann area 7) as the neural bases associated with individual optimal attentional strategy during motor learning. Furthermore, we observed a significant negative correlation, that is, lower activity in these areas was associated with a larger after‐effect size under the optimal attentional strategy.ConclusionOur findings demonstrated that more efficient neural processing in the frontoparietal area under the individual optimal attentional strategy can accelerate motor learning.

Postural Control Entropy Is Increased When Adopting an External Focus of Attention.

Falls in older adults are a public health challenge due to their influence on well-being and health-care costs. One way to address this challenge is to discover new methods to enhance postural control in older adults so they are better prepared to maintain an upright stance. Older and younger adults (N = 32) performed a static balance task on a force plate with no instructions, internal focus instructions, or external focus instructions. Center of pressure displacement time series were analyzed using sample entropy and standard deviation. Only the external focus condition significantly increased postural control entropy, which was observed across both age groups. This study showed that an external focus of attention can be used to increase postural control entropy within a single session of testing.

“Kick it like Ronaldo”: a cross-sectional study of focus of attention effects during learning of a soccer knuckle ball free kick technique

The aim of this study was to investigate whether soccer free kick training improves the knuckle ball technique of adolescent and adult male soccer players after a three week training period using either internal or external focus of attention instructions. Much evidence has been gathered in the literature showing that an external focus of attention (i.e., focus on the movement effects) is more effective than an internal focus (i.e., focus on the movements themselves) during learning. In the present study, 56 soccer players (20 adolescents and 36 adults) completed a free kick training program for which attentional focus (internal vs. external) was manipulated. Results indicated that the external focus group showed greater improvements compared to the internal focus group. These findings therefore provide further support for the advantages of external focus of attention instructions during skill acquisition and further show that this remains true for prolonged training periods.

Improving Classroom Engagement to Maximize Learning in an Interdisciplinary Dual Faculty Capstone Experience at the University of Manitoba

One of the most effective and efficient ways for an engineering program to facilitate compliance with the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB) accreditation criteria is through capstone design projects and courses [2]. Currently, The University of Manitoba Faculty of Engineering has several capstone design courses; however, each is independently focused on its own respective discipline. The resulting educational experience for students, though rigorous and challenging, is maintained within the boundaries of the students’ engineering discipline, thereby neglecting to provide the opportunity for students to work with people from multiple disciplines and across different faculties. This method of education, where students work in isolation, arguably does not reflect real world engineering. Through internal focus group meetings, program representatives from the Faculty of Engineering at The University of Manitoba agree that the capstones should be more reflective of real life situations. Interdisciplinary courses are most important because they “…articulate the difference between educational problems and workplace problems” [1]. Hence, to allow “(students) persons from different disciplines to work collaboratively and are integrated to combine their knowledge to solve a problem” (sic)[4], interdisciplinary capstone courses are essential to a rounded engineering education. Furthermore, teaming with the Faculty of Architecture will provide several benefits for both facilities such as: develop lifelong learning patterns; foster cooperative and collaborative team relationships; and, allow both facilities to learn the other’s cultures and technical languages.Since 2016, The University of Manitoba has presented research papers at the Canadian Engineering and Education Association (CEEA) conferences on the development and future assessment of an interdisciplinary capstone course. These papers have shown the evolution of the course from a multidisciplinary engineering program to an interdisciplinary Engineering and Architectural dual faculty offering. The course was launched in January, 2018, and will be evaluated through the winter session and into the fall.This paper, will explore, define, and explain how the proposed new engineering/architecture interdisciplinary capstone and dual faculty course will be developed, highlight the early stages of its initiation, describe the ongoing implementation, outline how the performance of the new course will be evaluated, delve into how the new course will be improved to make it more meaningful and practical to both faculties and students, and; discover how engagement can improved student learning.

Motor learning in children with developmental coordination disorder: The role of focus of attention and working memory

Effective motor learning paradigms are essential for children with motor difficulties to enhance their motor skills and facilitate performance in physical activities and in daily life. This study aimed to examine the effect of feedback with an internal or external focus of attention on motor learning of children with probable Developmental Coordination Disorder (pDCD). In addition, the role of working memory capacity was examined. Children were recruited via physical therapists, who integrated the experimental procedures within therapy sessions. We analyzed data of 25 children between 5 and 11 years old. They practiced a novel motor task of throwing a ‘slingerball’ over three weeks, while receiving feedback with an internal or external focus of attention. Results showed that children improved throwing accuracy regardless of the type of feedback they received. Visuospatial working memory capacity enhanced learning, especially for children receiving feedback with an external focus of attention. These findings corroborate clinical recommendations stating that children with DCD benefit from task specific training and feedback, which is promoted with both foci of attention. However, the findings contrast the expected benefits of practice with an external focus of attention. It highlights that the exact mechanisms and task constraints that influence the learning processes with an internal and external focus among children are not yet understood and warrant further study.

The Effect of Attentional Focus Conditions on Performer’s EMG Activity

Many researchers have been investigated the effect of focusing type on motor performance and muscular activity. Studies have showed that focusing on movement effects, i.e., an external focus enhances motor performance whereas, reduces muscular activity compare to focusing on body movements, i.e., an internal focus. The purpose of present study was to determine whether focusing externally had any effect on reduction of Electromyographic activity of performers. In this study, 16 participants were asked to perform weight lifting under control (no instructions are given), external (focusing on dumbbell) and internal (focusing on biceps brachii muscle) conditions. The EMG data were acquired via DELSYS EMG System and monitored on LabVIEW. RMSE values were calculated to compare the EMG activities under each conditions. The results showed that the EMG activity was significantly reduced under external focus condition.

The Effect of Attentional Focus and Frequency of Feedback on Performance and Kinematics in Basketball Free Throwing

Introduction: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of attentional focus and frequency of feedback on performance and kinematics in basketball free throwing. Materials and Methods: In this semi-experimental research, fifty students were randomly selected using convenience sampling method, and were randomly divided in one control and 4 experimental groups (internal focus and 33% feedback, internal focus and 100% feedback, external focus and 33% feedback, and external focus and 100% feedback). Experimental groups conducted six blocks of ten attempts (every day two blocks of ten attempts) in one week, and in three sessions of training, and received internal or external focus feedback with the corresponding frequency (33% or 100%). After 72 hours, retention and transfer tests were performed with ten-attempt blocks. Performance (throwing accuracy) and kinematic data (joint angle and range of motion) were collected. Data were analyzed using ANOVA with repeated measures and one way ANOVA. Results: Feedback with external focus (100% and 33%) was more effective in improving throwing performance in retention and transfer tests (P < 0.050). Kinematic data analysis showed that external focus feedback groups had the least maximum flexion in the knee joint in retention test compare to acquisition stage (P < 0.050). Moreover, external focus groups had the least maximum flexion at the knee in retention test compared to internal focus groups (P < 0.050). In range of motion of the knee, external focus groups had more range of motion in retention and transfer tests compared to internal focus groups (P < 0.050). Conclusion: Performance improvement in external focus groups may be limited to certain changes in kinematic data, and in line with constrained-action hypothesis.