Internal Combustion Engine Cars Research Articles

Life Cycle Assessment in the automotive sector: a comparative case study of Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) and electric car

Transportation represents one of the major contributors to several environmental burdens such as Green-House-Gas (GHG) emissions and resource depletion. Considering the European Union, light duty vehicles are responsible for roughly 10% of total energy use and air emissions. As a consequence, the need for higher fuel/energy efficiency in both conventional and electric cars has become urgent and the efforts across industrial and research players have proposed a range of innovative solutions with great potential.This study presents a comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) and electric vehicles. The analysis follows a “from cradle-to-grave” approach and it captures the whole Life-Cycle (LC) of the car subdivided into production, use and End-of-Life stages. The inventory is mainly based on primary data and the assessment takes into account a wide range of impact categories to both human and eco-system health. The eco-profile of the different vehicle configurations is assessed and the main environmental hotspots affecting conventional and electric cars are identified and critically discussed. The dependence of impacts on LC mileage is investigated for both propulsion technologies and the break-even point for the effective environmental convenience of electric car is determined considering several use phase electricity sources. The analysis is completed with a comparison of GHG emissions with the results of previous LCA studies.

태양광 발전을 이용한 전기자동차 배터리 충전 및 공급시스템에 관한 연구

Recently the Paris Climate Change Accord has been officially put into effect, making global efforts to implement Greenhouse Gas (GHG) reductions, and also International environmental regulations in the automotive sector will be further strengthened. The electric vehicle, which minimizes the particulate matter generated by existing internal combustion engine automobiles, is evaluated as a representative eco-friendly automobile. However, charging the battery of an electric vehicle is not fully environment-friendly if it is fueled by electricity that is being generated by fossil fuels as an energy source. The energy generated by the photovoltaic power generation system, which is an infinite clean energy, can be used to charge an electric vehicle’s battery. Currently, shortage of charging facilities, time of charging, and high battery prices are the problem of activating the supply of electric vehicles. This study is to build a conjunction between the EVBSS (Electric Vehicle Battery Supply System) and ESS (Energy Storage System), which can quickly supply the photovoltaic charged battery to the required demand. If the charged battery in the Battery Swapping Station (BSS) is swapped swiftly, it will dramatically shorten the waiting time for charging the battery. As a result, if the battery is rented when it is needed, electric vehicles can be sold without the cost of a battery, which accounts for a large portion of the total cost, then the supply of electric vehicles are expected to expand. Furthermore, it will be an important alternative to maneuver climate change by minimizing GHG emissions from internal combustion engine vehicles.

Evaluation of the CO 2 emissions pathway from hydrogen production to fuel cell car utilisation

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are perceived to be an intelligent transport choice for reducing emissions and are subject to considerable research and development as well as government incentives to accelerate deployment. However, though FCEVs produce zero tailpipe emissions they could, depending on the methods used to generate and distribute hydrogen, be more or less environmentally friendly than EVs or other alternatives. In this study, the authors review state-of-the-art FC technologies and identify the less polluting options. The environmental impact of FCEVs, pure battery EVs and internal combustion engine cars are then modelled, compared and forecast to 2050 under various scenarios. Finally, recommendations are made supporting solutions offering the most environmentally friendly way forward.

The time-frequency method of signal analysis in internal combustion engine diagnostics

The paper presents the results of the study of applicability of time-frequency correlation functions to solving the problems of internal combustion engine fault diagnostics. The proposed methods are theoretically justified and experimentally tested. In particular, the method’s applicability is illustrated by the example of specially generated signals that simulate the vibration of an engine both during the normal operation and in the case of a malfunction in the system supplying fuel to the cylinders. This method was confirmed during an experiment with an automobile internal combustion engine. The study offers the main findings of the simulation and the experiment and highlights certain characteristic features of time-frequency autocorrelation functions that allow one to identify malfunctions in an engine’s cylinder. The possibility in principle of using time-frequency correlation functions in function testing of the internal combustion engine is demonstrated. The paper’s conclusion proposes further research directions including the application of the method to diagnosing automobile gearboxes.

Is investing in an electric car worthwhile from a consumers' perspective?

The use of electric vehicles (EV) has long been proposed as a viable alternative to conventional cars and as a means of tackling transportation challenges related to the increasing reliance on fossil fuel and resulting greenhouse gas emissions. However, considerable barriers to its effective market uptake still persist. One of the most important ones is the cost of EV compared to other options in the same car market segment. The purpose of this paper is to assess whether the investment in an EV pays-off in different car market segments. Comparisons between internal combustion engine cars and battery EV (BEV) were undertaken, evaluating the excess cost for the consumer. The evaluation is complemented by a probabilistic risk analysis. The car market segment is found to be a relevant aspect with the results suggesting that the acquisition of BEV for the higher end car market segment can easily become a financially attractive option. On the other hand, the cost argument for acquiring a BEV on the lower/middle car market segment is still not as convincing. The analysis was undertaken assuming the current Portuguese market conditions, but the results are deemed to be pertinent for other markets and regions.

The impact of the EU car CO2 regulation on the energy system and the role of electro-mobility to achieve transport decarbonisation

We analyse the impact of the current and an alternative stricter EU CO2 car legislation on transport related CO2 emissions, on the uptake of electric vehicles (EV), on the reduction of oil consumption, and on total energy system costs beyond 2020. We apply a TIMES based energy system model for Europe. Results for 2030 show that a stricter target of 70g CO2/km for cars could reduce total transport CO2 emissions by 5% and oil dependence by more than 2% compared to the current legislation. The stricter regulatory CO2 car target is met by a deployment of more efficient internal combustion engine cars and higher shares of EV Total system costs increase by less than 1%. The analysis indicates that EV deployment and the decarbonisation of the power system including higher shares of variable renewables can be synergistic. Our sensitivity analysis shows that the deployment of EV would sharply increase between 2020 and 2030 at learning rates above 12.5%, reaching shares above 30% in 2030. Finally, the study highlights that, besides legislating cars, policies for other transport sectors and modes are needed to curb transport related CO2 emission growth by 2030.

Rebound effects from speed and acceleration in electric and internal combustion engine cars: An empirical and conceptual investigation

Rebound effect studies of road vehicle travel focus mostly on increases in distance traveled after increases in energy efficiency. Average journeying speed also increases with energy efficiency, but rebound studies avoid quantifying speed-related rebound effects. This may underestimate rebound effects by around 60%. This study offers a first attempt to show how increases in speed and acceleration contribute to rebound effects, and how these can be quantified. Its empirical data is dynamometer test results for a plug-in electric car and an internal combustion engine (ICE) pick-up van with automatic transmission, each on the WLTP and NEDC drive cycles, representing driving styles from today and 1975 respectively. Rebound effects are estimated by comparing the WLTP and NEDC results, using typical 1975 energy efficiencies for the NEDC. The electric car shows a 20.5% speed rebound effect, and a mathematical development sets out how speed rebound effects can be included in traditional rebound effect analyses. Results for the ICE-vehicle do not allow a direct rebound effect estimate due to wasteful engine revving on the NEDC and wrong gear ratios for sedate travel. However, this can be seen as a form of ‘transformational’ rebound effect, where vehicle design locks drivers into fast driving styles.

Spatial contexts and firm strategies: applying the multilevel perspective to sustainable urban mobility transitions in Brazil

The Multilevel Perspective on Sustainable Transitions (MLP) has been widely used to explain different patterns of technological, societal, cultural and normative transitions in an integrated and systemic way. This framework has been used to analyze individual transportation based on internal combustion engine automobiles and to develop niches that can challenge the existing dominant regimes in favor of more sustainable urban mobility systems. In a recent and relevant work, Markard et al. (2012) thoroughly discussed MLP, highlighting gaps and research opportunities. One such gap is that much of the research developed using this framework was conducted primarily using European scenarios, omitting various aspects of regional or country diversity, or the role of firm strategies failed to be considered. Therefore, we propose to analyze and compare Brazilian and German case studies regarding sustainable urban mobility transitions. To accomplish this goal, we analyze the diffusion level and different characteristics that explain the current development level of four niches: electro mobility, car sharing schemes, intermodal transportation, and innovation in public transportation. Using the multiple case study method, we compare the sustainable mobility initiatives and innovations undertaken by two German automotive companies in Brazil and in Germany. The results of the research conducted with both companies show that mobility initiatives in Brazil remain very limited. Manufacturers remain much more concerned with selling traditional products (in a much faster growth market than in Germany) than with initiating more aggressive strategies oriented to mobility. Even in their mother countries, mobility innovations can be considered moderate. Our main conclusions are that mobility initiatives in Germany and in Brazil are very different for a number of reasons, such as different pre-existing infrastructures to support new mobility initiatives, public pressure for mobility solutions, different growth patterns concerning car sales and different institutional and legal conditions regarding public and private participation in mobility issues. Therefore, the MLP framework would generate different trajectories and outcomes; in addition, firm strategies should be considered in the framework, particularly in a sector such as the automotive industry, in which firms have considerable influence.

A Computational Chemistry Approach for Investigation of Low Friction Mechanisms Based on FEP Film with Functionalized SiO<sub>2</sub> Nanoparticles

To improve the fuel efficiency of automobile internal combustion engines, we investigated the fundamental mechanism of friction reduction within engine moving parts. A new coating was designed by introducing SiO2 nanoparticles in FEP film. The SiO2 nanoparticles were functionalized with hydrophobic fluoroalkyl units on their surface to create additional low friction property. Universal Surface Tester friction measurements revealed a significant reduction of the friction coefficient with increasing number of hydrophobic fluoroalkyl units for SiO2 surface functionalization. To clarify the friction reduction mechanisms by the functionalization of SiO2 nanoparticles, a quantum chemical calculation was carried out. The result indicates that an attractive force occurs between nanoparticle Si atoms and polymer F atoms, while by adding fluoroalkyl units on the SiO2 nanoparticle surface, this force changes to repulsive. By performing a molecular dynamics simulation of a shear model between FEP film and SiO2 nanoparticles, we observed a decrease of friction force with increasing fluoroalkyl units which lead smooth rolling motion of nanoparticles, thus confirming the repulsive effect of nanoparticle functionalization. We conclude that fluoroalkyl units on the SiO2 surface play an important role in creating a repulsive force between nanoparticle and FEP film which lead to low friction coefficient.

PEMFC Subzero Cold Start in a Quasi-Adiabatic Single Cell Fixture

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) are a global contender to replace the internal combustion engines in automobiles. One key element for making PEMFCs viable for automotive applications is to improve their cold-start performance and survivability from sub-zero temperatures. The main factor limiting cold-start performance is the inherent presence of water—both residual and product water. Water within a fuel cell under subzero conditions has the potential to cause mechanical damage from ice lens formation and limit the diffusion of reactant gases during cold-starts. The DOE has set several automotive targets for 2010 regarding PEMFC freeze, identical to those for the internal combustion engine: survivability from -40¢ªC and cold-start capability from -30¢ªC. The 2010 cold-start performance target from -20¢ªC, requires the fuel cell to attain 50% rated power in the first 30 seconds after start-up. Additionally, the maximum shut down energy expenditure is limited to 5 MJ, for functions—such as, drainage and dry out. Common single cell testing methodologies of testing PEMFCs’ materials for subzero cold start applications include freeze/thaw cycling for durability and isothermal water fill tests for cold start approximation. These testing protocols are limited because of the massive thermal sink of the fixtures endplates. In a stack of 350 or more repeat cells there is exothermic heating from adjacent cells. An adiabatic single cell fuel cell fixture was developed in 2004 at United Technologies Research Center.[1] The goal of the proposed work presented herein is to further refine the design and testing methodologies. A quasi-adiabatic single-cell fuel cell fixture was designed, built, and validated to emulate cold starts at the stack level, see Figure 1. This cell meets or exceeds internal requirements for pressure distribution at the MEA/GDL interface based on both modeling and mechanical testing. Balsa wood (vs synthetic alternatives) was used as a rigid insulation material. With the current fixture geometry (16cm2 active area), stresses do not exceed the ultimate stress of the weakest piece of balsa. To examine thermal distribution, the cell was frozen to a uniform temperature and heated using embedded heating pads as guard-heaters with a constant heat flux. This temperature data was then input into a finite element model in COMSOL. It was found that a large degree of insulative and guard-heat ability was obtained noted by the zero heat flux condition of the model results within the graphite flow field. Galvanic and potentiostatic cold starts were performed with the fuel cell fixture and show limitations in the MEA and the fuel cell test station. The galvanic tests set to 600 mA cm-2 were dominated by sufficiently high membrane resistances such that the fuel cell test station could not apply a constant current condition forcing the cell to be ramped up from a voltage minimum of less than<0.1V. Potentiostatic cold starts were set to 0.1V till the current attained a value of 600 mA cm-2. 1. Rice-York, C., J. Needham, N. Gupta, and P.L. Hagans, 'Platform for Rapid Prototyping of PEM Fuel Cell Designs with Enhanced Cold-Start Performance and Durability', ECS Transactions, 2006, 1, 383. Figure 1

Electric Vehicle Development and Prediction of Battery Consumption Based on a Journey Profile

The lack of internal combustion engine (ICE) for electric vehicle (EV) makes it solely dependable on battery supply. Due to this, the prediction of battery consumption becomes crucial to determine the accurate driving range before the car needs to be re-charged. The developed prediction model can also be applied as simulation tool and help in reducing the length and the cost of the EV design process. This paper presents the prediction of battery power requirement for a small re-engineered EV converted from a commercial ICE car by using vehicle dynamic mathematical equations. The prediction is performed based on multiple journey profile that gathered before the actual test. The development of re-engineered EV is also presented, along with the experimental result of an actual drive test on a racing circuit to validate the prediction model.

A comprehensive socio-psychological approach to car type choice

Data from a web survey, which was conducted in 2012 among 1421 owners of a new internal combustion engine car and 372 new battery electric car owners in Norway, were used to test an adapted version of the comprehensive action determination model to explain private consumers' purchase of fuel-efficient cars. It was first examined whether the average fuel efficiency differs among internal combustion engine car classes. Consequently, with battery electric cars being regarded as the most fuel-efficient group, five car groups ordered by fuel efficiency were retained. The results of subsequent structural equation modelling show that intention to buy a fuel-efficient car, brand loyalty, number of cars and driver's license holders in the household, household size, and household income had significant direct effects on choosing a more fuel-efficient car. Normative processes had a mediated impact on behaviour. Implications for design and implementation of interventions are discussed.

Health and environmental benefits related to electric vehicle introduction in EU countries

Introduction of electric vehicles (EV) can help to reduce CO2-emissions and the dependence on petroleum products. However, sometimes relatively larger air pollutant emissions from certain power plants can offset the benefits of replacing internal combustion engine (ICE) cars with EV. The goal of this study was to compare the societal impact (climate change & health effects) of EV introduction in the EU-27 under different scenarios for electricity production. The analysis shows that countries that rely on low air pollutant emitting fuel mixes may gain millions of Euro/annum in terms of avoided external costs. Benefits extend across the EU, especially for emissions in small countries. Transport pollution affects the local scale, while electricity pollution has a regional reach. Other European countries, that depend on more polluting fuel mixes, may not benefit at all from introducing EV. Data on the present fuel mix were available for Belgium, France, Portugal, Denmark and the UK on a detailed time scale (5–30′ basis) and show that the time dependent variation of external cost for charging EV is dwarfed compared to the overall gain for introducing EV. The largest benefit is found in not driving an ICE car and avoiding local combustion related emissions. Data on the present fuel mix were also available for Romania on a detailed time scale (10′) and show that the variation in external costs is relatively larger than for the other countries and at some moments it may be worth the effort, at least in theory, to reschedule EV loading schemes taking into account social impact analysis.

Identification of bimetallic electrocatalysts for ethanol and acetaldehyde oxidation: Probing C2-pathway and activity for hydrogen oxidation for indirect hydrogen fuel cells

Hydrogen, in the ethanol molecule, can be utilized in indirect hydrogen fuel cells. In this device, ethanol can be dehydrogenated producing H2 and acetaldehyde in an external fuel processor, and the H2 molecules are electro-oxidized in the anode. The anode electrocatalyst can, additionally, be active for the electro-oxidation of residual ethanol or acetaldehyde, but must catalyze the reaction via the C2-pathway (intact CC bond), in order to avoid the formation poisoning species. This work investigated potential materials that are active for H2 and catalyze the selective electro-oxidation of ethanol and acetaldehyde via the C2-pathway. The bimetallic electrocatalysts were formed by W, Ru and Sn-modified Pt nanoparticles. The reaction products were followed by on-line differential electrochemical mass spectrometry (DEMS) experiments. The results showed that Ru/Pt/C and Sn/Pt/C presented higher overall reaction rate when compared to the other studied materials. However, they were non-selective, even at different atomic proportions, and catalyzed the reaction in parallel pathways producing CO2 and acetaldehyde, with Ru/Pt/C presenting the highest average current efficiency for CO2 formation (16.6%). On the other hand, W/Pt/C with high W content was more selective to the C2 route, evidenced by the absence of the DEMS signals for molecules with one carbon atom such as CH4 and CO2. Additionally, this material was active and stable for H2 electro-oxidation, even in the presence of acetaldehyde in solution, contrarily to what was observed for Pt/C, and this was associated to its activity for H2 oxidation and its inability for the CC dissociation, as evidenced by the DEMS measurements. The high selectivity obtained for the W/Pt/C material to the C2-pathway, and its capability for hydrogen electro-oxidation, is an important novelty in this work, as it turns into a potential electrocatalyst for application in the anode of indirect hydrogen fuel cells powered by ethanol, mainly for those that operates as auxiliary power units of internal combustion engine cars.

A computational chemistry approach for friction reduction of automotive engines

To improve the fuel efficiency of automobile internal combustion engines, the friction reduction of each engine moving part is important. Recently, carbon films have been attracting much interest as surface-coating materials due to its excellent properties such as low friction and good wear resistance. In this study, the low-friction mechanisms of carbon films were analyzed using molecular dynamics simulations and density functional theory calculations. Molecular dynamics simulation results showed that the termination of OH groups on the surface of the diamond substantially reduced the friction coefficient from 0.07 to 0.01. This reduction was achieved because termination of OH groups weakened the covalent interaction between Fe and C atoms, which was indicated by density functional theory calculations. Additionally, based on the concept of terminating the OH groups on the surface of diamond-like carbon films, we carried out the reciprocating friction experiment between hydrogen-free diamond-like carbon surface and glycerin, which contains large number of OH groups. The friction coefficient of the glycerin was 0.028, much lower than that of the base oil, which was 0.075. The experiments confirmed that OH groups on the surface of hydrogen-free diamond-like carbon films greatly improved the friction properties of its films.

An innovative method for the sonification of quiet cars

With the development of electric motorizations, the acoustic feedback that the driver perceives in the passenger compartment has deeply changed. The vanishing of engine noise is often associated with better comfort, but it also represents a substantial loss of information for the driver. Internal combustion engine noise indeed plays a major role in the acoustic contribution of the multisensory perception of motion. In a previous experiment, we showed that it was more difficult for drivers to correctly estimate the vehicle speed without engine noise. Thus, more attention is needed from the driver to correctly regulate the speed in electric cars than in internal combustion engine cars. Consequently, we developed an innovative sonification method to compensate for the loss of auditory information in electric cars. The generated sounds are directly controlled by the vehicle’s driving parameters, which give relevant cues on motion. This method has been tested in a driving simulator study to validate its suitability and to show that the control of sound properties can be adjusted to give precise information to the driver.

Two-stage stochastic programming based on the desirability function to optimize the performance of an internal-combustion engine

The performance of an engine is one of the major concerns in the automotive industry. Increased emission restrictions on motor vehicles have led to the necessity of more accurate control on the engine performance. The objective of this study is to optimize the injection and ignition system in an automobile internal-combustion engine. In this paper the engine torque, the fuel consumption and the hydrocarbon emissions are considered as the main performance metrics of the engine, and a mathematical model is proposed on the basis of response surface methodology and two-stage stochastic programming. The proposed model encompasses desirability functions with a maximum–minimum operator to convert several responses into a single response and also considers the probabilistic pattern of regression coefficients by some random scenarios. To illustrate application of the proposed approach, it was applied in a real case in an automotive company. The results of this test represent a reasonable performance of the proposed approach.

Experimental Verification of Electric Vehicle Using Electric Double Layer Capacitor

Abstract – This paper discusses to conduct experimental verification of two types of micro electric vehicles (EV) in order to realize improvement in electric mileage and shorten a charging time of the battery. First, electric double layer capacitor (EDLC) systems to use as a secondary battery are proposed. The internal resistance of EDLC is small compared with a rechargeable battery, and it is suitable for momentary charge-discharge of EV. Next, control circuits of the capacitors to increase the regenerative electric power are utilized. Then, a novel method to charge a main battery of the EV is introduced. Finally, experimental results demonstrate the validity of the proposed method. Keywords: E l ec t riVh ,ED oub L ay Cp ( ) Rg n v P w 1. Introduction Recently, electric vehicles research and development has been investigated in order to solve the problem of global warming and fossil fuel depletion. EV does not emit exhaust gas at the time of driving. Motor toque generates fast and accurate, and it can be measured precisely. Thus, the major advantages of electric drives are the effective control traction force applied between the tire and the road surface [1]-[3]. However, range between recharges of EV is shorter than internal-combustion engine car, because EV cannot load many batteries from restrictions of weight of vehicle or capacity. And, charging time of EV is longer than refueling time of internal-combustion engine car. Here, this paper verify new charger which employ a new charging method (Advanced I.C&C Technique) developed by Techno Core International Co., Ltd to shorten the charging time [4]. And then, this paper presents applications of Electric Double Layer Capacitor (EDLC) into rechargeable batteries [5], [6]. For example, the electric vehicle Capacitor COMS, which has only EDLC as the electric energy source, has been reported in the literatures [7] and [8]. Since EDLC is based on a physical reaction and the resistance is also small, the electric capacity is large and it is possible to charge and discharge rapidly compared with rechargeable batteries. In this research, EDLC is connected in parallel with main rechargeable battery in order to reduce the electricity consumption of the battery and increase regenerative power from the driving motor. Finally, experimental results demonstrate the validity of the proposed method by two types of micro EVs (COMS LONG and e-ZONE).

Synthetic engine noise generation for improving electric vehicle safety

Electric cars are commonly known not only to be environmentally friendly, but also to be very quiet. While a quiet car is generally a good thing, safety concerns have been raised that Electric Vehicles (EVs) may cause more frequent accidents involving pedestrians than Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) cars, as pedestrians may not notice an approaching EV. This paper conducts noise level measurement for EVs and ICE cars at different speeds. We then describe the implementation of a synthetic engine noise generator and examine its performance and its acceptance among drivers and pedestrians.

Energy and Pollutant Damage Costs of Operating Electric, Hybrid, and Conventional Vehicles in Singapore

Pollutant emissions for vehicles are a function of the amount of energy it consumes and the feedstock for that energy. A model was built to capture the energy and pollutant damage costs associated with using electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid vehicles and internal combustion engine cars in Singapore based on vehicles currently available in the Singapore market. These damage costs were compared to vehicle purchase price and fuel costs. This is part of broader work to compare the costs and benefits of EVs with hybrid and ICE vehicles in Singapore.