Intermediate Proficiency Levels Research Articles

Expanding opportunities for social language and social inclusion among adult learners

This article explores how research on the teaching of pragmatics, specifically as it relates to the use of explicit and implicit instruction, can serve as a guide for expanding the instruction of social language to immigrant students in Australia as well as other students. The curriculum and expectations from the Australian Migrant English Program (AMEP) are used as an example, but teachers working in similar programs can benefit as well. Several activities specific to explicit and implicit instruction are used to illustrate how to teach social language to learners from beginner, intermediate, and advanced levels of proficiency.

Learning-oriented assessment and its effects on the perceptions and argumentative writing performance of impulsive vs. reflective learners

Learning-oriented assessment (LOA) is becoming increasingly popular in language education. The rationale for this popularity is the belief that LOA not only provides teachers with the necessary information for regular and ongoing evaluation but also it effectively assists learners in their learning process. This study attempted to examine the effectiveness of LOA in the argumentative writing skills of reflective and impulsive EFL learners. To this end, the study explored the learners’ perceptions of LOA through a survey questionnaire. To collect data, 116 English learners at an intermediate level of proficiency participated in the study and responded to Barrat’s BIS 11 learning style questionnaire (Journal of Clinical Psychology 51:768–774, 1995). Based on their responses, the participants were divided into two groups of impulsive (N = 59) and reflective (N = 57) learners, with four missing participants. Each group was further divided into two sub-groups, in one of which pseudo-integrative argumentative writing was taught and in the other the learners were involved in learning refutation argumentative writing. Other than the type of writing, both groups were provided with regular feedback on their diagnosed writing problems and performance within 16 sessions. They were also involved in self- and peer assessment. Analysis of the results revealed that LOA significantly improved the students’ writing performance. Moreover, while the type of the writing task did not have any significant effect, the reflective learners outperformed the impulsive ones in their writing performance at the end of the treatment. The results also revealed that the leaners generally had positive perceptions about the use of the LOA approach. In particular, they acknowledged the contributions of the teacher’s feedback, peer assessment, and classroom discussion to their writing development throughout the course. However, the reflective learners showed more appreciation of the tasks when it came to developing competence and demanding critical thinking. Hence, the conclusion is that LOA can be effectively used as a learning approach to promote Iranian EFL learners’ writing performance and landscape.

Fluency development beyond speech rate: A study on the effects of read aloud protocols on EFL learners

Research on the effectiveness of read aloud protocols to develop EFL fluency has mostly had positive outcomes. However, the impact of these types of interventions in intermediate levels of proficiency has yet to be conclusive when measured using speech rate as a dependent variable, e.g., word correct per minute. We studied how a listener's comprehension and intelligibility might change when read aloud protocols are used to enhance fluency. To do so, we used a data set that did not present increasing rates in speech rate after 11 weeks of practice (as reported in Rodríguez-Fuentes et al., 2023). We asked a group of independent raters to rank each participant's three (first, middle, and last) performances to assess if they could find differences in the performances over time. Seventy-nine percent of the raters perceived that the third performances were the best of each set they were provided, and that the second performances were better than the first. There was a consistent positive progression in perceived fluency. Also, a qualitative analysis of students' reflections showed significant gains from using read aloud protocols (RAPs) and increased awareness of key areas of fluency development, such as intonation, speech flow (vs. word-by-word reading), and self-confidence, among others.

Linking Teachers' Profiles to their Capability in Curriculum Implementation: Analysis of Factors that Shape and Influence EFL Classes

An analysis of teachers' profiles and their influence on the curriculum implementation of English taught as a foreign language (EFL) constitutes the crux of the study. Teachers' profiles provide a gauge of their capability in curriculum implementation. Policies have been conceptualised to facilitate the seamless and smooth interaction between the teacher's role and task, and to ensure that the curriculum is implemented according to its goals and objectives. However, when teachers' profiles do not meet the requirements, and the policies do not facilitate the teachers' task, challenges arise that impact the teaching–learning process. Thus, this study analysed teachers’ profiles and the influence of these profiles on teachers’ curriculum implementation. The survey design captured 57 EFL teachers' profiles and their beliefs and perceptions about implemented policies. The findings reveal that most of these teachers had an intermediate proficiency level and more than a decade of teaching experience, and most taught at high school level in urban areas. Pedagogically, teachers employed communication-driven activities; however, certain conditions, such as big classes, insufficient time, and limited resources, were factors that may have affected the effective facilitation of the implementation of the English component of the curriculum. Teachers' profiles and institutional support are key factors that influence the outcome of policy implementation. Having an appropriate professional profile in the teaching pool and providing the appropriate pedagogical and curriculum support is pivotal to curriculum implementation of teaching a foreign language such as English in a predominantly Spanish-speaking country such as Ecuador.

Assessing on-the-job trainees' proficiency in office productivity tools: An investigation of training needs and strategies

This study aimed to assess the office productivity tool proficiency among on-the-job trainees in a public higher education institution in Nueva Ecija, Philippines. Descriptive research was utilized and a self-made instrument developed. It was properly reviewed and revised to ensure valid and reliable results. Findings showed a disparity in the number of male and female respondents, with Web Systems Technology being the majority specialization and smartphones being the most commonly used gadget. Although the majority of the respondents had no formal office productivity tools training, they exhibited intermediate proficiency levels in document processing, spreadsheet, presentation, publication, collaboration, and online digital content creation applications. Notably, only a few respondents had advanced skills. A skills training template was designed as a result of the study, and recommendations were provided for future academic endeavors.

Racial Inclusivity in the Spanish Curriculum: A Case for Afro-Hispanic Literature

Racial Inclusivity in the Spanish Curriculum: A Case for Afro-Hispanic Literature Jerry L. Parker Ahead of the recent wave of social justice movements (e.g., [All] Black Lives Matter (#BLM), #MeToo, #StopJewishHate, #StopAsianHate), in 2019 the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) declared a stance on diversity, equity, inclusion, and belonging (DEIB) in language education. It affirmed that it “values diversity and strives for inclusion across foreign language teaching and learning contexts.” Such a profound statement was a rallying cry for world language teachers, researchers, advocates, and activists to further ensure that all students succeed regardless of where they are from or where they plan to go. While other leading language organizations such as the American Association of Teachers of French (2020) and the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese (2021) followed suit with their own DEIB statements, there is still more to be done. This article seeks to add to the growing conversation on DEIB in word language curricula and instructional practices by sharing my experience with integrating Afro-Hispanic literature into an intermediate Spanish II course. Spanish 202 (Intermediate Spanish II) is a general education course required in certain majors at my university. The departmental goal of this course is to review basic grammar such as verb tenses and syntax and to use the language in communicative contexts. The vocabulary is usually a little more specific and geared toward college students’ interests and aspects of daily life. Culture is also normally focused on a more sophisticated study of everyday life in Spanish-speaking countries and facets of literature, history, music, education, and the arts. Students who successfully complete this course should ideally possess a Novice High to Intermediate Low level of proficiency in the language. Although I only detail one unit from the course, this experience was very powerful because it showed how all students, regardless of race, gender, religion, and other aspects of identity, truly do benefit from DEIB efforts in world language courses. This experience also serves as an example for others seeking to follow the same path as it relates to increasing DEIB efforts in their teaching. Particularly in Spanish, it provides a template for integrating the work of Afro-Hispanic authors into Novice and Intermediate level courses. The Reality of Black Students and Languages Just as many English, history, and humanities departments have started to move toward a more culturally inclusive curriculum to retain marginalized students, it is time for world languages to do the same. Additive Curricular Nullification, or the inclusion of discussions or units that promote critical perspectives on issues of language and society are key to advancing social justice in world languages (Reagan and Osborn 249). Ignoring racial diversity in language teaching reinforces the legacies of inequity and exclusion upon which America and the American education school system were built (Anya and Randolph). Hence, saying phrases like “I don’t see color” are perceived as “I want to forget the historical ramifications for your people from when mine and others used it as a means for defining American society” (Anya and Randolph 24). This attitude is not acceptable. [End Page 3] There currently exist larger degrees of diversity (e.g., racial/ethnic, gender and sexuality, socioeconomic) in Spanish language classrooms than what teachers experienced just 25 years ago. The result has become greater emphasis on and understanding of the need for teaching practices that will be received positively and simultaneously align with the learning needs of a wide array of students (Brown et al. 155; Rosa and Flores 175). Although for decades educators have argued that no individual should experience marginalization of their contributions or talents because of their unique attributes, there has historically been and still is disproportionally lower enrollment of Black students in comparison to other racial and ethnic groups in World Languages courses. Likewise, of the number of Black students who do enroll, an even smaller number of them graduate college with a major or minor in a language (Parker 2022). In looking at the data for 2020 and 2021 published by the National Center for Educational Statistics, the number of Black students leaving college with a bachelor’s degree in...

Potential Impact of Automated Writing Evaluation (AWE) on EFL Learners’ Writing Accuracy: Learners’ Attitudes in Focus

The present study aimed to examine the potential impacts of Automated Writing Evaluation (AWE) on Iranian English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ writing accuracy. Another study objective was to identify the learners’ attitudes toward using AWE in English classes. As such, 50 female EFL students at the intermediate level of language proficiency were chosen via convenience sampling to participate in the present study. They were then randomly divided into two groups of Control Group (CG) and the Experimental Group (EG), each consisting of 25 learners. Before the treatment, a researcher-made writing composition pre-test was administered to both groups. Next, the learners in the EG received the treatment in which an AWE system was employed to check the learner’s written productions. Next, learners in the CG were exposed to the conventional pen-and-paper methods of English writing classes. Then, a writing composition post-test was administered. The performances of learners on pre and post-tests were scored based on accuracy in terms of syntactic errors. After administering the post-test, EG learners were asked to fill in a questionnaire on AWE. Moreover, they were asked two questions in a semi-structured interview on their attitudes toward applying to the AWE program. The researcher recorded and later transcribed the learners’ answers for further analysis. The independent sample t-test revealed that Iranian EFL learners’ writing accuracy significantly improved after receiving AWE. Furthermore, the Chi-square test results, in conjunction with the interview results, showed that learners had positive attitudes toward AWE in writing classes. The study will have implications for the second language (L2) writing practices of EFL teachers and students.

THE IMPACT OF NEGOTIATED LESSON PLAN ON INTERMEDIATE EFL LEARNERS’ VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE

The current study investigated the effect of the traditional lesson planning determined by teachers and the negotiated lesson plan (NLP) on Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ vocabulary knowledge. To this end, a copy of Solution Placement Test was administered to 47 learners, and 36 participants at the intermediate level of language proficiency were homogeneously selected. They were then divided into two groups of 18 participants as the experimental and the control groups. Next, the vocabulary pretest was conducted to measure the participants’ vocabulary knowledge and check the homogeneity of the groups at the beginning of the treatment. The learners in the experimental group shared their ideas in small groups, had the key role and enjoyed shared-decision making deciding what they would do for the next sessions of the course. The learners in the control group had no role in determining the course materials. The result of data analysis based on their pretest and posttest scores of vocabulary showed that the participants of the experimental group became better vocabulary learners after receiving NLP treatment compared to those in the pre-determined lesson plan that received unnoticeable results from the pretest to the posttest. The teachers and the material developers need to consider the negotiated lesson planning into account so that the issue of learner involvement in instructional materials is paid attention to.<p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/soc/0096/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

A SURVEY OF LEARNING MOTIVATION AND ATTITUDES OF HUI HERITAGE LANGUAGE USERS

The objective of this study is to review the conservation and transmission of the Hui dialects, utilizing the "inheritance language theory" that has surfaced internationally, whilst further appreciating the distinctiveness and significance of minority languages. The survey is executed by means of both empirical and quantitative techniques followed by assessment of the findings through SPSS statistical software, to manifest genuine situation of the Hui language inheritance.The survey results indicate that Xi'an Hui heritage language speakers possess an intermediate level of dialect proficiency or above. Furthermore, their listening and speaking skills outperformed their reading and writing abilities. Their dialects are frequently used, and they demonstrate an upper intermediate level of learning attitudes and motivation. The motivation and attitude of inherited dialect speakers are affected by various backgrounds, including gender, place of residence, and partner's ethnicity. In light of these findings, the author suggests protective measures for minority inherited languages at different levels and from various perspectives

A Look at Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (SCT): The Effectiveness of Scaffolding Method on EFL Learners’ Speaking Achievement

Speaking is an English ability that learners should acquire. Nevertheless, learners had several speaking difficulties, one of which was a fear of making errors when speaking in English. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of the scaffolding method on enhancing Iranian EFL learners’ speaking achievement. To meet this end, a sample of 61 Iranian EFL learners were chosen from a total of 87 participants based on their Oxford Placement Test’s (OPT, 2007) performance. They were picked out of a private English language school. Their English proficiency was at the intermediate level. The target participants were then randomly divided into two groups: one control group (conventional group) and one experimental group (scaffolding group). Intermediate proficiency level was the primary criterion that had to be met for the learners to be chosen as respondents in this study. Their speaking competence was calculated by speaking section of PET as pretest. This pretest speaking contained different parts like interviews. In the next phase, the treatment was administered. For the scaffolding group, the instructor offered flexible occasions to exercise their skills, knowledge, and learning methods in diverse settings and for different targets. Carrying out the dialogs and designing questions from the texts, making conversations based on the picture and the question cards, were applied as scaffolding techniques. The control group, on the other hand, took part in typical speaking courses using customary methods of instruction. The teacher provided the pupils with a piece of recent news and a video episode of recent events in order to employ authentic language—language as it is used in a real situation. Finally, the two groups’ performances were posttested by PET speaking section. The performance of the two groups was compared, also the results of their pretest and posttest were contrasted. The inferential statistics including independent samples t-test and paired samples t-tests findings showed that there was a substantial difference between the experimental groups and the control group posttests. The results indicated that the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group ( p < 0.05 ) in the speaking posttest, showing that applying scaffolding to experimental group was effective. The study has several educational implications that are highlighted.

Processing gender agreement in an additional language: The more languages the better?

Although previous research has observed a facilitative influence of the first language (L1) on the acquisition and processing of gender agreement in a second language (L2), particularly in language pairs with similar gender agreement marking, the question of whether knowledge of two languages with gender can confer an additional advantage for L3/Ln (third or additional language) learners has not yet been addressed. The present study aimed to fill this research gap by examining the processing of gender agreement in intermediate and advanced L3/Ln Swedish among two groups of Polish native speakers: 30 L2 English / L3 Swedish learners, and 30 L2 English / L3 German / L4 Swedish learners. Participants were tested by means of a speeded grammaticality judgment task, in which they judged the correctness of indefinite noun phrases that either agreed or did not agree in gender. They also completed an untimed gender assignment task to control for their lexical knowledge of gender. Accuracy and response time data were submitted to Generalized Linear Models. The analysis shows that L4 Swedish learners process noun phrases faster than L3 Swedish learners, but only at the intermediate proficiency level; however, the groups do not differ in their judgment accuracy. This advantage is interpreted in terms of a surface transfer of similar gender agreement marking, which helps the learners automatize gender agreement processes earlier, but does not increase their sensitivity to gender-agreement violations. Moreover, the results accord with previous L2 studies in showing that learners of Swedish as L3/Ln develop sensitivity to ungrammaticality with advancing proficiency and benefit substantially from their gender assignment knowledge in processing gender agreement. Crucially, the present study provides preliminary evidence of a multilingual advantage in processing morphosyntactic features in L3/Ln.

A Single or Separate Entities? A Genre-Based Investigation Into the Correspondence Between L1 and L2 Writing Skills

Reflecting one of the state-of-the-art issues in SLA, this study aimed at inspecting the correspondence between Persian and English writing skills to see whether or not they emerged from a single entity called multi-competence (Cook, 1991, 2016). Besides, the impact of genre on Persian and English writing skills was examined to explore if the skills and their possible source were genre-sensitive or not. In so doing, 50 MA TEFL students, at the intermediate level of language proficiency, were selected through Oxford quick placement test. Each student wrote down four argumentative and descriptive compositions: two in Persian and two in English. Then the compositions were evaluated based on the criteria of IELTS task 2 writing scoring scale. To analyze the obtained data, Pearson product-moment correlations and one-way repeated measures ANOVAs were employed. The findings illustrated that there were significant correlations between Persian and English argumentative and descriptive compositions, which supported the possible existence of the single entity, multi-competence. The findings also displayed that genre affected the participants’ L1 and L2 writing skills, implying that the skills and their source, multi-competence, were possibly influenced by genre. Based on the findings, it is recommended that L1 writing instruction be included in L2 writing courses as they are inter-dependent and can help each other’s amelioration. It is also suggested that a genre-based approach be utilized in L2 writing instruction to enhance the students’ awareness over the building blocks of each genre.

The mapping of TOEFL scores among EFL students in Aceh

The purpose of this study was to describe the proficiency level of English for Foreign Language (EFL) students based on their TOEFL scores. The samples for this descriptive quantitative study consisted of 30 English Education Department students from Syiah Kuala University and Ar-Raniry State Islamic University. The scores gathered from the organised TOEFL test were analysed according to the CEFR reference levels to categorise the English proficiency level of the students. The total TOEFL scores gathered showed that, on average, the students placed in the B1 (intermediate) level of English proficiency. Individually, there were four students in the A2 (elementary) level, 15 students in the B1 (intermediate) level, ten students in the B2 (upper intermediate) level, and one student in the C1 (advanced) level of proficiency. Regarding the skills proficiency, on average, the students achieved the B2 (upper intermediate) level in the first section, which was higher than the remaining two sections that averaged on the B1 (intermediate) level. The students’ proficiency levels found in this study showed that, on average, they were able to pass the universities’ TOEFL graduation requirement but still fall short for abroad scholarship admission.

Online foreign language learning: Measuring efficacy versus traditional classroom study

The Covid-19 pandemic precipitated a mass transfer of educational activity to the online space in many countries. While advances in internet communication technologies have allowed many educational activities to continue throughout periods of closure of traditional classroom environments, the change necessitated a sizeable shift in terms of actual language pedagogy and learning strategies. Simply put, Foreign Language Acquisition (FLA) through online activities is different from traditional face-to-face learning (e.g., Chun, Kern, & Smith, 2016). However, while research can point to various advantages and disadvantages of online vs. face-to-face classroom environments for foreign language study, it is an open question whether the online study has the potential to replace traditional classrooms while achieving a similar or even greater level of proficiency gains. This paper presents a longitudinal case study of an adult learner progressing from an absolute beginner level to an intermediate level of proficiency (CEFR-level B1) through purely online (one hour) weekly instruction over the course of two years, and using learning records; it will elucidate the learner’s perceived differences between online and in-person language instruction. The results suggest that the online instruction yielded more opportunity for productive conversational use of the Target Language (TL), thus enabling the faster development of basic conversational competence compared to traditional classroom instruction.

Textual Syntactic Complexity and Its Role In Second Language Reading Outcomes In Indonesia

This paper examines the role of syntactic complexity in L2 reading outcomes across different EFL proficiency levels in an Indonesian university. Indonesian university students (N = 148) at Intermediate and Advanced levels of proficiency read four English passages differing in syntactic complexity. The latter was measured by several widely used text modelling tools. Participants read two low and two high complexity texts and completed a post-test comprehension test. Syntactic complexity had a statistically significant but low magnitude effect size, accounting for 2%-5% of the variance of reading performance between the L2 English proficiency levels. There were also noticeable differences in text analysis measures across the different complexity tools. The usefulness of syntactic complexity as an isolated dimension of text complexity is evaluated. The contribution of this study to the field both in theory and practice is presented.

Textual Syntactic Complexity and Its Role In Second Language Reading Outcomes In Indonesia

This paper examines the role of syntactic complexity in L2 reading outcomes across different EFL proficiency levels in an Indonesian university. Indonesian university students (N = 148) at Intermediate and Advanced levels of proficiency read four English passages differing in syntactic complexity. The latter was measured by several widely used text modelling tools. Participants read two low and two high complexity texts and completed a post-test comprehension test. Syntactic complexity had a statistically significant but low magnitude effect size, accounting for 2%-5% of the variance of reading performance between the L2 English proficiency levels. There were also noticeable differences in text analysis measures across the different complexity tools. The usefulness of syntactic complexity as an isolated dimension of text complexity is evaluated. The contribution of this study to the field both in theory and practice is presented.

Probing into Non-native Learners’ Written Accuracy: Does Feedback Type Matter?

Corrective feedback (CF) has long been a hot topic in language education circles and has received extensive research attention. However, there is still controversy over the effectiveness of CF use and error correction in language classes. To address this discrepancy, the current study probed the effectiveness of different CF types in improving grammatical accuracy in writing. We recruited 74 female English as a foreign language students within the age range of 16–21 at an intermediate proficiency level and divided them into four treatment groups and one control group. Four feedback types were used in the treatment, namely explicit correction, clarification request, metalinguistic, and elicitation. The experimental groups’ grammatical knowledge of target structures (tense, voice, and agreement) was assessed before and after CF treatments and was compared with that of the control group. The findings revealed that all feedback groups outperformed the control group, highlighting the effectiveness of CF treatment. In addition, the metalinguistic feedback group outperformed all other experimental groups, with no difference observed between elicitation and clarification request groups. Further findings and implications are discussed in the paper.

Effects of stimulus discriminability on peak shift: An investigation with COVID-19 risk assessments

Intradimensional discrimination training may cause peak shift, in which participants respond more frequently to a novel stimulus presented during a generalization test than the positive exemplar used in training. Previous research has shown that peak shift is most likely to occur in participants who have achieved an intermediate level of proficiency with the discrimination. We sought to examine whether discrimination learning and peak shift could be altered through variations in stimulus discriminability. An international sample of 117 adults were trained to discriminate one visual representation of risk from COVID-19 (S+) from a second level of risk (S-) that was either lesser or greater. In a high discriminability condition, a single indicator of risk (a bar length) was presented on each trial. In a moderate discriminability condition, participants were required to estimate a person’s risk from multiple risk indicators. In a low discriminability condition, participants were additionally required to consider risk mitigation factors when estimating a person’s risk. Peak shift was absent in the high discriminability condition but present in the moderate condition. The low discriminability condition produced either flat or monotonic generalization gradients. The results additionally demonstrate how presenting health risk information to people in relatively simple or relatively complex ways affects their ability to judge that information correctly.

DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE BY MEANS OF MOBILE APPS

The article presents a study of the peculiarities of the communicative competence development of students of the Faculty of Foreign Languages of Pavlo Tychyna Uman State Pedagogical University with an Intermediate level of English language proficiency by means of mobile apps. The aim of the article is to determine the variety of mobile applications that can be used in the process of learning English, and the possibilities of their use to develop students’ communicative competence.The following research questions were formulated in order to develop relevant methodology and expect trustworthy findings: Is the use of mobile apps effective in learning English as a foreign language? What types of mobile apps can be used in the EFL class and autonomous learning? Can the students’ communicative competence be enhanced with the help of mobile apps?The research methodology is based on the use of relevant data collection tools, namely survey and questionnaire with the subsequent experimental intervention, as well as testing.The results of the intervention give indications that mobile apps are becoming an important feature of education as they are an immense step forward and they bring benefits to language learning. The intervention showed that mobile apps can be easily applied in the classroom, arranging group work and creating relevant context for topics under discussion. The learning process can be easily organized only with the smartphones of teacher and students and a steady Internet connection. No other additional devices and previous training are required. Another conclusion comes from the results of pre- and post-tests: students’ communicative competence can be developed and enhanced with the help of properly selected and adequately used mobile apps. It is proved by the slight increase in students’ test results in the experimental group and positive feedback from the students after the action research was completed.
 Keywords: English language; communication skills; communicative competence; mobile learning; MALL; mobile app; mobile device; smartphone.

Classroom Concordancing and Second Language Motivational Self-System: A Data-Driven Learning Approach.

Research shows that exploring language corpora through data-driven learning (DDL) plays a significant role in language learning. Nevertheless, it is not clear if using concordancing as an application of DDL affects the learners’ second language motivation. To address this gap, the current study adopted a triangulation design, validating quantitative data model, and a quasi-experimental (comparison group, pretest-posttest) design. Ninety English-major university students with an intermediate level of English language proficiency, divided into control and experimental groups, took part in the study. Drawing on a second language motivational self-system questionnaire, the findings of the study did not result in any statistically significant differences between the students in their second language motivational self-system. Altogether, the students found learning English through a DDL approach with concordancing less motivating than receiving explicit instruction. The study has implications for language teaching and learning.