Interim National Research Articles

International Arbitration: A New Mechanism to Settle Intra-State Territorial Disputes between States and Secessionist Movements? The Divorce of Sudan and South Sudan and the Abyei Question

In 2008, the Government of Sudan (GoS) and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A) submitted an arbitration agreement with the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) in The Hague. In a unique fast track procedure, an international arbitration tribunal had to determine in accordance with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) of 2005, in particular the Abyei Protocol and Abyei Appendix, the Interim National Constitution (INC) and general principles of law, whether the Abyei Border Commission (ABC) exceeded its mandate, which was to define and demarcate the area of the nine Ngok Dinka chiefdoms transferred to Kordofan in 1905. In case of excess, the parties entrusted the tribunal with redefining the boundaries of the disputed territory based on the parties’ submissions. To guarantee the transparency of the procedure and to generate acceptance by all stakeholders on the ground, all hearings and documents were made publically available. The procedure and the more than 200-pages-long final Award from July 2009 constitute an illustrative example of an international dispute settlement procedure dealing with an intra-state (territorial) dispute between a state and a secessionist movement. The paper asks why and how the parties initiated the arbitration procedure and evaluates the still disputed status of the Abyei Region and the record of the parties’ (non-)compliance with the Abyei Award and its role in the ongoing status-negotiations between Sudan and the newly independent South Sudan. By inter alia taking a comparative perspective with other international dispute settlements the paper critically discusses the legal-political implications of the Abyei Arbitration and whether it could serve as a model or lesson learned when it comes to the effectiveness and success of international arbitration and its potential contribution to the settlement of intra-state (territorial) disputes.

When rape becomes politics: Negotiating Islamic law reform in Sudan

Synopsis Under Sudan's Criminal Act (1991), rape is defined as zina (adultery and fornication) without consent. This means that the strict rules of evidence used for zina are also applied to rape. Women activists have contested this legal position, despite government repression of those advocating reform. Data from 50 interviews in 2011, 2012, and 2013 show that criminal law reform on rape/zina is politicized and polarized, with little dialog between the government and women activists. The 2005 peace agreement and the Interim National Constitution sparked a review of Sudan's laws, while the outbreak of armed conflict in Darfur and the International Criminal Court indictment of President al-Bashir focused attention on sexual violence in Sudanese society. These developments have furthered debate on legal reform of rape/zina provisions, including the controversial topic of marital rape. But in this highly politicized environment, reform advocates find that their space for maneuver is small.

Water Quality Assessment of UPM Lake and the Impact of Geographic Information System

A study of the water quality changes of engineering lake was conducted for 3 months in March, August and September. A total of 8 water quality parameters were measured and their average monthly observations were recorded with consideration of both point source and non-point source (NPS) pollutants. The parameters measured were Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N),pH, Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and water temperature.This was done according to the guidelines of department of environment (DOE) Malaysiaon water quality assessment with respect to Interim National Water Quality standards (INWQS). Based on INWQS and WQI Malaysia the lake was classified as polluted against class IIb. This shows the lake is not suitable for recreational activitiessuch as fishing, canoeing. The level of pollution based on spatial resolution of two water quality parameters, BOD and water temperature was made possible using geographical information system (GIS). ARCMAP 10.1 softwarewas used for this application to determine the concentration of the parameters at every position in the lake.

Impact of Fine Sediment on TSS and Turbidity in Retention Structure

A study of the impact of fine sediment on various water quality parameters in retention structure such as sediment basin was conducted on stagnant and flowing condition. 7 water quality parameters (pH, TSS, turbidity, DO, BOD, COD, ammonium nitrogen) were measured and classified according to the Interim National Water Quality Standard (INWQS) for Malaysia. Results show higher fine sediment concentration causes higher TSS and turbidity. Besides, results show TSS and turbidity were influenced by soil type for the same amount of fine sediment. Soil Siri Rasau 1 showed highest TSS and turbidity value followed by soil Siri Bungor and soil alluvium. A good positive correlation of TSS versus turbidity and has been investigated in this study. Multiple nonlinear regression analysis revealed that parameter TSS is dependent on time, total soil mass, fine soil mass and flow rate.

Effect of Logging Activities on Water Quality and Benthic macroinvertebrate Assemblages of Madek River Basin, Kluang, Johor, Malaysia

The study was conducted to determine the effect of logging activities on water quality and benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages for the Madek River basin. The study area was situated in Kluang, Johor, Malaysia. Two sampling stations 500 meters apart are upstream and the other, downstream located at Madek River which flows through a logging area in Kluang Forest Reserve were identified. The sampling was conducted four (4) times from November 2008 to August 2009. Surber Net measuring 500 micron mesh size combined with a rectangular quadrat of 30 cm x 30 cm (0.09 m2) was used to sample the macroinvertebrates. The organisms were identified up to genus level except for Chironomidae which was only identified up to Sub-family level. For water quality, six in-situ parameters based on the standard procedure of U. S. Environmental Protection Agency were measured at each station. The parameters such as temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, turbidity and salinity were measured using a multi parameter probe Model YSI 6920 with 650 MDS Display/Logger as well as a single parameter probe. All the physico-chemical water quality parameters were well below Class I as provided for under Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (INWQS), except turbidity which fell under Class II of the INWQS. There were only two (2) sensitive taxa namely Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera found in this station. Ephemeroptera that was found in the logging area was from genus Potamanthus, Pseudiron, Ephemerella and Rhithrogena, while Trichoptera was from genus Hydropsyche and Macrostemum.

Beware the Duck Test

Beware the Duck Test

Status of Water Quality Based on the Physico-Chemical Assessment on River Water at Wildlife Sanctuary Sibuti Mangrove Forest, Miri Sarawak

Problem statement: Mangrove forest is a component of wetlands that has been recognized as one of the most productive ecosystem in the trop ic. Rapid development and other land uses in the mangrove areas over the years had negatively affect ed the ecological functions and its ecosystem. Study was carried out on river water quality at Sib uti Wildlife Sanctuary, Miri based on the physico- chemical properties. Approach: A total of 72 water samples were collected from 12 stations or sampling points from Sungai Sibuti (SS) and its tributary, a man-ma de canal called Sungai Parit Scheme (SPS) at Sibuti Wildlife Sanctuary Miri, Sar awak in the month of June, August and October 2010. In situ data measurement such as temperature, conductivity, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), pH and turbidity were taken and labeled. Analysis for para meter such as ammoniacal nitrogen (NH 3-N), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and total suspended solids (TSS) were conducted in the laboratory. Both in situ and ex situ data were measured and analyzed according to the Standards Methods APHA, 2005. Results for each water quality parameters are summarized as follows, temperature range (29.3-32.8°C), pH range (6.02-8.07), DO range (2.76-4.7 mg L -1 ), conductivity (0.805-96.1 �S cm -1 ), TSS range (0.00119-0.4361 mg L -1 ), turbidity (10.2-15.3 NTU), BOD range (5.21-6.66 mg L -1 ), COD (7.5-25) and ammoniacal nitrogen (0.1-0.31 mg L -1 ). Results: Based on Water Quality Index (WQI) and Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (INWQS) by the Department of Environment Malaysia, river water of SPS and SS fall under Class II. Conclusion: The water quality status of river water at Sibuti W ildlife Sanctuary Mangrove Forest, Miri Sarawak is under category class II or good water quality status. All water quality parameters in this study are found to be in class I and II (good water quality) except for the BOD and DO which indicate fairer and moderate river water q uality status.

Development of Water Quality Model for Sungai Tebrau using QUAL2K

Tebrau River starts in Senai and ends in the Straits of Johor and has been categorized as most polluted river in Malaysia. It has been classified as class III river water quality based on the Interim National Water Quality Standard (INWQS) with the average value of Water Quality Index (WQI) of 59. This study was focussed on simulating the effect of the pollution from industrial area to Tebrau River Basin by using QUAL2K which is the modenization version of QUAL2E. This water quality model involved in simulates two primary parameters which are Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Ammoniacal Nitrogen (AN). It has been found out that QUAL2K model can be used as an outstanding tool in managing the river basin.

Underlying Medical Conditions and Hospitalization for Pandemic (H1N1) 2009, Japan

To the Editor: Early epidemiologic reports suggested that infection with pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus most commonly occurred in teenagers and young adults (1). Although this infection appears to have a mild clinical course and the mortality rate has been relatively low in Japan (1.6 deaths/1 million population) (2), the reported number of patients with severe (requiring intubation or admission to an intensive care unit) cases of this disease has been increasing (2). The difference in severity of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 infection may be attributed to differences in underlying medical conditions or to age-related differences in susceptibility. To explore these differences, we investigated the incidence of laboratory-confirmed cases of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus infections resulting in hospitalization in Japan and the patients’ age-specific risks for hospitalization associated with underlying medical conditions. During the outbreak in Japan, hospitals, local public health centers, and local governments were required to report hospitalizations associated with pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus to the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare in Japan. Infection was confirmed by PCR at local public health centers. The data for hospitalized patients were integrated through a nationwide surveillance system, the interim National Epidemiologic Surveillance of Infectious Diseases. We collected data on patients who were hospitalized in Japan for pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus infection from July 28 through December 14, 2009. The number of new cases (incidence) increased in the middle of August and peaked at the end of November (2). We excluded from analysis those patients who had been hospitalized for the purpose of infection containment. Medical conditions were defined as diseases that are risk factors for severe illness associated with seasonal influenza: chronic respiratory diseases, chronic cardiovascular diseases, chronic renal diseases, chronic liver diseases, neurologic diseases, hematologic diseases, diabetes, and immunosuppression caused by treatments or illnesses (including malignant neoplasm) and chronic childhood diseases (3,4). Data on the prevalence of the diseases among the population were obtained from the 2005 National Patient Survey and from population estimates obtained by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications in May 2009. During the surveillance period, 12,702 laboratory-confirmed cases for which the patients required hospitalization were reported; 110 of these patients died (Table). Hospitalization incidence was 10.0 admissions/100,000 persons (overall incidence of hospitalization in the general population in 2005 was 1,462.8 admissions/100,000 persons). Median age of hospitalized patients was 7 years (interquartile range 5–11 years). Of the 10,721 patients for whom type of care was known, 680 (6.4%) were admitted to an intensive care unit. Among 486 hospitalized women 15–44 years of age, only 42 (8.6%) were pregnant; this percentage is small compared with results of studies conducted in other countries (5–7). None of the pregnant women were in critical condition and none died of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 infection during the surveillance period. The overall lower prevalence of pregnant women in Japan (≈0.67% of the total population) compared with that in other countries (8) might account for the low number of pregnant women hospitalized for pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus in Japan. Table Age-specific incidence and risk for hospitalization with laboratory-confirmed pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus infection, Japan, July 28–December 14, 2009* Of all 12,702 patients, 4,420 (34.8%) had underlying medical conditions. In terms of age, 1,848 (32.6%) of 5,670 patients 5–9 years of age and 324 (81.0%) of 400 patients >70 years of age had underlying medical conditions. For those with underlying medical conditions, incidence of hospitalization was relatively higher for children than for adults; rates for hospitalized children were 814.1, 573.7, and 219.0 per 100,000 persons for those 5–9, 10–14, and 15–19 years of age, respectively; whereas, the rate for hospitalized adults 60–69 years of age was 6.7/100,000 persons. In all age categories, the incidence of hospitalization for pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus infection was notably higher for patients with underlying medical conditions than for those without. The attributable risk for medical conditions associated with hospitalization for pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus infection was highest among patients 5–9 and 10–14 years of age (744.7 and 549.6, respectively), whereas the risk was lowest (6.5) among patients 60–69 years of age. The relative risk associated with underlying medical conditions was comparatively higher for patients in age groups 15–19, 20–29, and 30–39 years (48.4, 54.9, and 48.4, respectively) than among those >70 years of age (17.9). In contrast to seasonal influenza (4), persons <20 years of age had higher risk for hospitalization for pandemic (H1N1) 2009 than did older age groups. Considering our findings regarding the attributable risk for hospitalization, interventions that aim to control pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus infection among children, especially those with underlying medical conditions, can be considered key for minimizing the strain (financial, staffing, space) on the healthcare system. Our findings justify prioritizing the treatment of children and young adults by vaccination and early prescription of antiviral drugs.

Water-Quality Assessment of the Langat River at Kilometre 7, Jalan Kajang-Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

The Langat River is one of the main sources of water supply for the Selangor area. For water-quality analysis, water sampling was carried out at five stations during the wet (November 2009) and dry (February 2010) seasons. These five stations are located along the river, with the exception of station 3. Station 1 and station 2 are located upstream station 3, while station 4 and station 5 lie downstream of station 3. Station 3 differs from the other four stations because it is a discharge from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia campus. This study was conducted to determine water quality as well as levels of pollution, based on the Water Quality Index (WQI) and the Malaysian Interim National Water Quality Standard (INWQS), of the Langat River at Km 7. A total of 14 water-quality parameters—temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), conductivity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), PO4, NO3-, NH3-N, SO4, oil and grease, and E. co...

The Principle of Complementarity in the Cases of the Sudanese Nationals Ahmad Harun and Ali Kushayb before the International Criminal Court

AbstractIn April 2007, the Pre-Trial Chamber I of the International Criminal Court (ICC) issued its first arrest warrants with regard to the situation in Darfur. Addressees of these measures are the Minister for Humanitarian Affairs and former Minister for the Interior Ahmad Harun and the alleged Janjaweed leader Ali Kushayb, who both at the time of writing have not yet been surrendered to the ICC. On the contrary: Sudan consistently invokes its national sovereignty and its ability to prosecute its nationals itself. However, with regard to Harun and Kushayb, there is reason to hold strong doubts as to Sudan's ability and willingness to seriously prosecute them. Therefore, this article assesses the admissibility of these two cases before the ICC, focusing on the principle of complementarity. For this the article starts with an overview of those aspects of the principle of complementarity which are relevant for the situation in Darfur. A thorough analysis of the status of the Sudanese judicial system both before and after the adoption of the Interim National Constitution of Sudan in 2005 follows, before, finally, the application of the principle of complementarity to the two cases is assessed against the results found.

Stormwater quality and pollution loading from an urban residential catchment in Johor, Malaysia

Sampling of urban runoff was carried out in a small catchment, which represents a residential area (3.34 ha) in Skudai, Johor. One hundred and seventeen runoff samples from ten storm events were analysed. Runoff quality showed large variations in concentrations during storms, especially for SS, BOD5 and COD. Concentrations of NO3-N, NO2-N, NH3-N, and P were also high. Lead (Pb) was also detected but the levels were low (<0.001 mg/L). In general, the river quality is badly polluted and falls in Class V based on the Malaysian Interim National Water Quality Standards. Event mean concentrations for all parameters were found to vary greatly between storms. The values (mg/L) were BOD5 (72), COD (325), SS (386), NO3-N (2.5), NO2-N (0.58), NH3-N (6.8), P (3.4), respectively. First flush phenomena were observed for BOD, COD, SS, NO3-N, NH3-N and P. The first 20-30% of the runoff volume evacuated between 20-59% BOD, 15-69% COD, 15-78% SS, 14-49% NO3-N, 14-19% NO2-N, 23-53% NH3-N and 23-43% P.

Water Quality Changes in Chini Lake, Pahang, West Malaysia

A study of the water quality changes of Chini Lake was conducted for 12 months, which began in May 2004 and ended in April 2005. Fifteen sampling stations were selected representing the open water body in the lake. A total of 14 water quality parameters were measured and Malaysian Department of Environment Water Quality Index (DOE-WQI) was calculated and classified according to the Interim National Water Quality Standard, Malaysia (INWQS). The physical and chemical variables were temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), conductivity, pH, total dissolved solid (TDS), turbidity, chlorophyll-a, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solid (TSS), ammonia-N, nitrate, phosphate and sulphate. Results show that base on Malaysian WQI, the water in Chini Lake is classified as class II, which is suitable for recreational activities and allows body contact. With respect to the Interim National Water Quality Standard (INWQS), temperature was within the normal range, conductivity, TSS, nitrate, sulphate and TDS are categorized under class I. Parameters for DO, pH, turbidity, BOD, COD and ammonia-N are categorized under class II. Comparison with eutrophic status indicates that chlorophyll-a concentration in the lake was in mesotrophic condition. In general water quality in Chini Lake varied temporally and spatially, and the most affected water quality parameters were TSS, turbidity, chlorophyll-a, sulphate, DO, ammonia-N, pH and conductivity.

Runoff quality and pollution loadings from a tropical urban catchment

Runoff quality draining from 17.14 km2 urban catchment in Johor Bahru, Malaysia, was analysed. The land-use consists of residential (30.3%), agricultural (27.3%), open space (27.9%), industrial (8.1%) and commercial (6.4%) areas. Three storm events were sampled in detail. These storms produced stormflow between 0.84 mm and 27.82 mm, and peakflow from 2.19 m3/s to 42.36 m3/s. Water quality showed marked variation during storms especially for TSS, BOD and COD with maximum concentrations of 778 mg/l, 135 mg/l and 358 mg/l, respectively. Concentrations of TOC, DOC, NH3-N, Fe and level of colour were also high. In general, the river quality is badly polluted and falls in Class V based on the Malaysian Interim National Water Quality Standards. Event Mean Concentrations (EMC) for various parameters varied considerably between storms. The largest storm produced higher EMC for TSS, NO3-N and SS whereas the smaller storms tend to register higher EMC for BOD, COD, NH3-N, TOC, Ca, K, Mg, Fe and Zn. Such variations could be explained in terms of pollutant availability and the effects of flushing and dilution. Based on a three-month average recurrence interval (ARI) of rainfall, the estimated event loadings (ton/ha) of TSS, BOD, COD, TOC, NH3-N and NO3-N were 0.055, 0.016, 0.012, 0.039, 0.010, 0.0007 and 0.0002, respectively. Heavy metals present in trace quantities. Storms with 3 months ARI could capture about 70% of the total annual loads of major pollutants.

Blowtorch: Robert Komer and the Making of Vietnam Pacification Policy

Lyndon Johnson loved an audience, especially a captive one, which is what he had. The White House press corps waited in an uneven arc before him in Oval Office. Some reporters sat in cream-fabric settees. Others stood beneath fixed gaze of Henry Clay's and Andrew Jackson's dark portraits. No one dared intrude beyond presidential seal woven into center of pale green rug that lay before President's mahogany desk: proscenium of stage. The fragrance of cut flowers and tension and a ragged silence hung heavy in air. The time had not yet come for words, but President sat behind his desk preparing for that moment, looking up occasionally to scrutinize spectators. Reporters are puppets, he once remarked. They simply respond to pull of most powerful strings. (1) Then, at precisely 4:15 p.m., on Tuesday, 22 March 1966, with his aides in their places, White House stenographers with their pencils and notepads at ready, and all preparations complete, Lyndon Johnson pulled strings and began 60th press conference of his presidency: am ready if you have any questions. (2) Balding and bespectacled with a booming voice, 44-year-old Robert Komer felt tug of string as well. Appointed Johnson's interim National Security Adviser when McGeorge Bundy left a few weeks before to head Ford Foundation, Komer later recalled that period as the most painful six weeks of my life. (3) Now, after responding to several reporters' questions, Johnson announced that Komer would assume a new position on White House staff. Johnson had earlier summoned Komer to Oval Office to discuss his new role. Bob, Johnson drawled when they sat together, I'm going to put you in charge of in Vietnam. Komer was unfamiliar with term the war. Mr. President, what's in Vietnam? I thought we only had Well, President replied, that's part of problem. I want to have a to build as well as to destroy. So I want to put you in charge of generating a massive effort to do more for people of South Vietnam, particularly farmers in rural areas, and your mandate will be an extensive one. In fact, I wrote it myself. Komer declared that he was no expert in Southeast Asia. The President parried his feeble protest. I've got too many people who claim to be long-standing experts. What we need is some fresh blood. (4) Komer knew that there was no argument he could muster to dissuade Johnson. Johnson's leadership style was simple: pick right man for job and rest would take care of itself. Johnson had decided that Bob Komer was right man; he got things done. Under this order, Robert Komer set out to implement President's goals for other war in Vietnam, goals that were staggeringly different and complex from large-unit being conducted there. In essence, to fight war, he had to redirect and harness activities of civilian agencies as well as military efforts to provide security and defeat Viet Cong guerrillas, as part of a better-coordinated US effort to support government of South Vietnam through a nation-building program known as pacification. This term had become a substitute for counterinsurgency in 1964-1965. (5) The story is edifying in terms of such significant contemporary issues as influence of bureaucratic politics, institutional bargaining, role of presidential staff, formulation and conduct of foreign policy, and use of nonmilitary instruments to wage war, especially counterinsurgency, as is occurring in Iraq today. Moreover, it is instructive as to sway a single person can have on national security policy by understanding and using levers of power. This is no small point. Richard Falkenrath, President George W. Bush's Deputy Homeland Security Adviser until May 2004, in speaking about senior leaders of Department of Homeland Security, remarked: Many officials at department were so inexperienced in grasping levers of power in Washington, and so bashful about trying, that they failed to make progress on some fronts. …

The Election in Iraq

Although election of the Iraqi Interim National Assembly on 30 January 2005 was a step on the path toward democracy, it is too soon to judge it a resounding success. Further, it 7is important to keep in mind that the election is significant not only regarding the democratic process for the people of Iraq but also for the US and the future of US policy toward the Middle East. Many Iraqis strongly desired democracy and some steps toward democratization showed resemblance to the democracy movement in Europe. However, the exclusion of popular political movements and the emergence of mistrust failed the political process. At last, with the involvement of Grand Ayatollah Sistani, the election was realized. However, the Iraqi elections do not merit unreserved acclaim. This election allows, for the first time in Iraq's history, competition among ethnic and religious factions. Different attitudes among these groups toward the election and its results may further widen the gap separating them. In fact, the most important consideration regarding the election is what happens from now on.

The Endangered Species Act and the National Research Council's Interim Judgment in Klamath Basin

The controversial 2001 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service water allocation decision in the Klamath Basin has been portrayed as an example of scientific guesswork operating under a flawed Endangered Species Act. This conclusion has been based on an interim National Research Council report, quickly prepared in late fall 2001. We have reviewed several iterations of the NRC Interim Report as well as all Biological Opinions and management documents related to Klamath Basin suckers and provide an overview. The 2001 Biological Opinion and the Interim Report illustrate the lack of consensus typical of scientists in the early stages of exploring a complex system. Unfortunately, the Biological Opinion created hardship for a small group of people and the lack of scientific consensus has politicized the debate. Politicians have assumed that the Interim Report has primacy in the scientific debate when, in fact, its speedy construction contributed to multiple errors that detract from its scientific usefulness. The NRC Interim Report has, instead, primarily served to deflect debate away from the needs of listed fishes to one about shortcomings in the Endangered Species Act. Although the process of science has been served by both the 2001 Biological Opinion and the Interim Report, both have shortcomings, and we see no justification for either side labeling the other's decisions or conclusions as “not sound science.”

The remilitarization of Nigerian politics

Rather than aspects of the military intervention theories, the author presents in this paper facts related to the rupture of civilian power and of democratic institutions in Nigeria, caused by the military take over in 1993. He approaches militarism as the arbiter of political disputes in that country, evaluating thre estages of the process: the July 1993 elections, the “Interim National Govenment" (ING), and what he calls the "messianic instincts" of the military junta. In his concluding remarks, he sketches the persp

Tradition and Transformation: Democracy and the Politics of Popular Power in Ghana

InApril 1992, after nearly 11 years of military rule in Ghana, a draft democratic constitution of the Fourth Republic was overwhelmingly approved in a national referendum.1The ban on multi-party politics was lifted by the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) Government in the following month. An independent interim National Electoral Commission was established, and a hotly contested presidential election in 200 constituencies monitored by teams of international observers was held in November 1992. After multi-party parliamentary elections to the National Assembly, boycotted unfortunately by opposition groups, the democratically elected Government of Ghana's Fourth Republic was inaugurated in January 1993.2

Kanji Politics: Language Policy and Japanese Script

Introduction: What is language planning?, language policy? How Japanese is written History of language policy in Japan Language policy formulation in Japan today Underlying imperatives of language policy Which script? Some Japanese perspectives on language policy The major arguments. Historical background to government action The National Language Research Council The kana problem A temporary hiatus The Interim National Language Research Council The National Language Council. Kokutai and kotodama Domestic frustrations External language policies Taiwan and Korea China and southeast Asia. Democracy and script The early reforms: characters and kanazukai A reorganized National Language Council Reforms in the 1950s: name kanji, Orurigana Renascent opposition Results of the postwar reforms. Hyoonha and hyoiha The 1961 walkout A period of change The LDP intervenes The reversal begins: the 1966 shimon and the 25-year cycle of revaluation.