Patterns Of Intergenerational Mobility Research Articles

Intergenerational Educational and Occupational Mobility across Caste Groups in West Bengal

Intragenerational and intergenerational mobility are two important parameters of social mobility. The study of educational and occupational mobility across caste groups will help to understand how caste affiliation influences the pattern of intergenerational mobility. The data from India Human Development Survey 2012 has been used in this study which collects data on fathers’ and sons’ educational and occupational information. This study uses mobility matrices and aggregate measures based on them to understand the son’s position with respect to the father’s position. It is evident from this study that educational and occupational mobility in Bengal is associated with the social position of the caste groups. In comparison to the other castes, the Forward caste has a higher proportion of sons who have completed higher education. In comparison to the other caste groups, the sons of the Forward caste experienced the least downward mobility in education. On the other hand, upward mobility is highest among the Forward caste and lowest among the OBC. The caste-based pattern is also prevalent in downward mobility, immobility and upward mobility in occupation. The sons of the Forward caste had the greatest upward mobility, followed by SC and OBC. On the contrary, down mobility is highest for the SC’s son followed by the OBC and Forward caste. It is quite clear that caste does matter and matters deeply in Bengal’s socio-economic landscape.

Shades of social mobility: Colorism, ethnic origin and intergenerational social mobility

In this paper, I study the difference in intergenerational mobility patterns between the indigenous and non-indigenous Mexican populations, analyzing the role played by the variability in skin tones inside both groups. I employ a composite sample based on two recent surveys with the same sampling frame and questionnaire design. I obtained three main results based on rank-rank regressions and transition matrices for both the economic and educational dimensions. First, the indigenous population faces a higher degree of intergenerational persistence and remains concentrated at the bottom of the distribution of economic resources. Secondly, there is a skin tone gradient for the indigenous and non-indigenous populations, where lighter skin tones tend to remain at a higher rank in the distribution of economic resources than darker skin tones. Thirdly, the association between ethnic origin, skin tone and economic mobility persist even after controlling for the intergenerational educational mobility experienced by the person.

Opportunity and Place: Latino Children and America’s Future

We examine the spatial distribution of Hispanic children and analyze its relationship to the geography of opportunity. We describe the spatial distribution of Hispanic children across all U.S. counties, document their exposure to salutary and deleterious conditions, and compare exposure to these conditions among children living in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan counties that represent traditional and new destinations for immigrants. We find clear evidence of racial and geographic differences in opportunity, at least as defined by spatially uneven patterns of intergenerational mobility. We show that the typical Hispanic child is highly isolated, living in a county with a majority-minority population, high rates of poverty, low levels of education, and poor public health. Opportunities are limited in metropolitan core counties, where the large majority of Hispanic children live, and the movement of immigrant families from traditional gateways to new destinations provides little to children in terms of exposure to more opportunity.

Parents, Partners, and Professions: Reproduction and Mobility in a Cohort of College Women.

This article draws on data from a twelve-year longitudinal qualitative interview study of forty-five white women who started college in 2004 at a public flagship university in the American Midwest. We compare the class position of women's parents (captured when women began college) to women's own adult class position at age 30. Despite substantial downward mobility and modest upward mobility, we find that white women's social class was relatively sticky; that is, even downwardly mobile white women from privileged families did not fall far, while upwardly mobile white women from less privileged families were blocked from the top of the class structure. We develop the concept of "class projects," or multigenerational approaches to obtaining desired and imaginable economic circumstances, to explain patterns of intergenerational mobility in our data. We document three distinct class projects-gender complementarity, professional partnership, and self-reliance. Women experienced better outcomes when they engaged in a project that was a fit with family resources and motivations, as well as the larger socio-economic context. In addition, not all projects-even if successfully executed-led to the same level of economic security.

On the way to becoming a society of downward mobility? Intergenerational occupational mobility in seven West German birth cohorts (1944–1978)

Many studies on social mobility use operationalizations of social positions that do not take occupational upgrading into account. In order to estimate social mobility patterns net of occupational upgrading, I propose an operationalization involving administrative data to measure social positions by applying a percentile approach. Based on this measurement I calculate absolute and relative intergenerational mobility patterns.Using this operationalization, I aim to answer the question of how far intergenerational mobility patterns have changed over time in West Germany. Therefore, I analyze the occupational data of 7,416 38- to 42-year-olds born between 1944 and 1978 belonging to the sixth starting cohort of the National Educational Panel Study (NEPS). Compared to previous studies, I observe significantly higher rates of downward mobility. However, I do not find any cohort trends in absolute mobility rates and do not detect any changes in social fluidity patterns. I therefore conclude that there are no cohort trends in absolute or relative intergenerational mobility in West Germany, implying that it is not on its way to becoming a society of downward mobility. In contrast to previous studies, my results indicate high social fluidity and no changes in relative mobility over time. Hence, the picture of a rigid German social structure should be reconsidered.

Intergenerational Earnings Mobility and Returns to Education in Hong Kong: A Developed Society with High Economic Inequality

The Great Gatsby curve shows societies with higher levels of economic inequality to exhibit lower levels of intergenerational mobility, with such mobility influenced by educational opportunities. Hong Kong features one of the world’s largest degrees of economic inequality, but has also witnessed a substantial expansion in tertiary education in the past two decades. This paper investigates the change in intergenerational earnings mobility and returns to education in Hong Kong over time. Data were drawn from the 1996, 2006 and 2016 Hong Kong Population By-Censuses. Instrumental variables regression was performed to estimate the change in the average level of such mobility, and instrumental variables quantile regression to estimate the change in the non-linear pattern of intergenerational mobility and returns to education. The findings show the average level of intergenerational mobility has been improved, with intergenerational elasticity decreasing from 0.37 in 1996 to 0.26 in 2006 and 0.23 in 2016. However, intergenerational economic transmission among high-earners remains persistently strong. Examination of the non-linear pattern shows that it is the reproduction of wealth rather than the reproduction of poverty that has led to intergenerational persistence in Hong Kong. A similar pattern was observed in 1996, 2006 and 2016. Returns to non-degree tertiary education were similar across the earnings distribution in 1996 and 2016 but more valuable for low-earners in 2006. Degree-level tertiary education is persistently more valuable for high- than low-earners, which exacerbated earnings inequality in 1996, 2006 and 2016.

Mobility closure in the upper class: assessing time and forms of capital.

Most understandings of the ways classes become social groupings centre on processes of mobility closure whereby mutual appreciation and recognition within classes arise from homogenous experiences over time. The mapping of such structured biographies, however, remains understudied. This paper explores intra- and intergenerational mobility patterns in the upper strata of the Norwegian class structure and aims to include temporal processes and multiple forms of capital in the quantification of class trajectories. By combining multiple correspondence analysis and social sequence analysis, two important but often neglected aspects of recruitment to the upper class are emphasized: first, by introducing multiple forms of capital, different ways of maintaining mobility closure are demonstrated; second, different pathways to power are highlighted by distinguishing between divergent class careers. A key aim of the analysis is to explore internal divisions within the upper class in forms of parental capital (an 'origin space') and link these divisions to a typology of 'destination careers' in adulthood. The analysis suggests that individuals from modest origins are more likely to have careers that feature a biographically late arrival and/or short-term affiliations to upper-class positions whereas individuals from families rich in capital are more likely to have stable careers in the upper-class fractions from which they originate. The analysis thus reveals important divisions in the trajectories of Norwegians who reach the upper class; not only are there differences in their upbringing in terms of the availability of different amounts and types of capital but such divisions also seem linked to their own class careers later in adulthood.

Dynastic inequality, mobility and equality of opportunity

One often heard counter to the concern about rising income and wealth inequality is that it is wrong to focus on inequality of outcomes in a “snapshot”. Intergenerational mobility and “equality of opportunity”, so the argument goes, is what matters for normative evaluation. In response to this counter, we ask what pattern of intergenerational mobility leads to lower inequality not between individuals but between the dynasties to which they belong? And how does this pattern in turn relate to commonly held views on what constitutes equality of opportunity? We revive and revisit here our earlier contributions which were in the form of working papers (Kanbur and Stiglitz 1982, 1986) in order to engage with the current debate. Focusing on bistochastic transition matrices in order to hold constant the steady state snapshot income distribution, we develop an explicit partial ordering which ranks matrices on the criterion of inequality between infinitely lived dynasties. A general interpretation of our result is that when comparing two transition matrices, if one matrix is “further away” from the identity matrix then it will lead to lower dynastic inequality. More specifically, the result presents a computational procedure to check if one matrix dominates another on dynastic inequality. We can also assess “equality of opportunity”, defined as identical prospects irrespective of starting position. We find that this is not necessarily the mobility pattern which minimizes dynastic inequality.

Loglinear Analysis of Intergenerational Mobility in Eighteenth-Century Ottoman Anatolia

In this article we use loglinear techniques to examine intergenerational mobility patterns in eighteenth-century Ottoman Kastamonu. The research is based on estate inventories (terekes) and involves an analysis of the honorific titles of fathers and sons. The article demonstrates how father-son title-sharing was structured across different socio-economic groups and reveals the possible avenues of intergenerational status mobility. In addition, the article identifies temporal shifts in mobility patterns: In the late eighteenth century, intergenerational transitions linking elite title-holders and the lower echelons of the society became weaker. Also, cross-establishment transitions involving elite military and religious title-holders became less likely.

Empreendedorismo, marginalidade e estratificação social

A história do empreendedorismo mostra o papel relevante dos grupos sociais mais marginalizados, na tentativa de inserção social. Apesar disso, tal tema permanece praticamente explorado no Brasil. Nesse contexto, insere-se o presente trabalho, que buscou identificar o estrato social de origem de empreendedores industriais, localizados em Belo Horizonte, e o padrão de mobilidade intergeracional aí presente. Utilizou, para isso, uma pesquisa amostral de natureza quantitativa, complementada por informações qualitativas. Os resultados indicam que o empreendedorismo, no universo pesquisado, não constitui um fenômeno de elite. Encontra-se associado às classes média-baixa e baixa, e tal fato influencia a motivação para a criação de empreendimentos. Ao mesmo tempo, quanto menor o estrato social de origem dos empreendedores, maiores as chances de ocorrer mobilidade social vertical. O artigo lança luzes sobre o papel do empreendedorismo como fator de mobilidade social e abre caminhos para novas pesquisas na área.

Spouse Selection and Marital Mobility in the Ottoman Empire: Observations from Eighteenth-Century Kastamonu

Based on the information found in probate estate inventories, this article examines patterns of spousal preference and marital mobility in eighteenth-century Ottoman Kastamonu, located in northern Anatolia. For this purpose, we introduce quantitative techniques and categories of analysis specifically designed for Ottoman sources, primarily postmortem estate inventories (terekes), allowing us to measure how various socioeconomic groups established marital associations and to what extent they married other groups. The article also compares marital and intergenerational mobility patterns in eighteenth-century Kastamonu.

Patterns of intergenerational mobility of the old and new middle classes in a post-industrial society: Netherlands 1970–2006

It has often been proposed that new cleavages have emerged within the middle class. In this paper, we examine the distinction between social and cultural specialists and technocrats, and investigate whether these new and old middle class fractions are differentiated by their patterns of intergenerational mobility. To what extent do these newly distinguished middle class fractions have specific external and internal intergenerational mobility patterns? And to what extent have mobility boundaries between them been rising over time? To answer these questions, we use 47 Dutch national population sample surveys with detailed occupation codes collected between 1970 and 2006 (N=60,978). Our analyses of internal and external homogeneity show that the middle class fractions each have characteristic mobility and immobility patterns and therefore a necessary condition is satisfied to declare them as separate classes. Furthermore, in the early periods, the social and cultural specialists were differentiated by a high level of immobility but in the later periods, the distance between the old and new middle classes has decreased significantly.

Intergenerational mobility in the Ottoman Empire: Observations from eighteenth-century Kastamonu

Based on probate estate inventories from eighteenth-century Kastamonu in north Anatolia, this study examines intergenerational mobility patterns in one Ottoman provincial town. Although the topic is well-studied in many Western contexts, historical and contemporary, we still know little about the ways in which socioeconomic disparities and class identities were transmitted across subsequent generations of parents and children in the Ottoman Empire. In order to explore this issue in a sophisticated fashion, this article introduces quantitative techniques and categories of analysis tailored specifically for Ottoman sources. In addition to other findings, our analysis suggests that Kastamonu in the eighteenth century was vertically and horizontally segmented: Not only were there significant impediments to intergenerational mobility across privileged and underprivileged sectors of the society, such transitions were also infrequent across sub-groups within upper and lower classes. Despite a general lack of intergenerational fluidity at all socioeconomic levels, however, our calculations also reveal that the provincial elite were particularly immobile.

Die soziale Herkunft der Volksschullehrer bzw. Grund- und Hauptschullehrer nach 1945. Eine Analyse mit dem Schwerpunkt Nordrhein-Westfalen

By using terms and methods of historical research on social mobility, this essay looks at patterns of inter-generational mobility of elementary school teachers in North Rhine- Westphalia after World War II. The discussion focuses on the long-term historical changes in the social recruitment of teachers in the course of the 20th century, considering the enormous professionalization of the working field. Previous research has stated that teaching offered vast opportunities for upward career advancements at the beginning of the 20th century. In contrast to other contemporary opinions, professionalization did not lead to a bigger social exclusiveness. Furthermore, the work of elementary school teachers in Germany and in North Rhine-Westphalia in the 20th century was characterized by high rates of upward mobility. In 1971/72 two thirds of future teachers came from lower social classes than the profession itself was said to belong to. Opportunities for upward mobility to this extent can be referred to the results of the expansion of education. Especially the occupation of elementary school teachers became increasingly more accessible to children of the working class. Overall, the occupation of elementary school teachers went through a transformation in the 20th century.

Revolution, Reform, and Status Inheritance: Urban China, 1949–1996

Do regime change and market reform disrupt patterns of intergenerational mobility? China's political trajectory is distinctive from that of other communist regimes in two ways. During its first three decades, the regime enforced unusually restrictive barriers to elite status inheritance. And during the subsequent market transition, unlike most of its counterparts, the Communist Party survived intact. Data from a multigeneration survey suggest that despite their obvious exclusion from the party and related administrative careers in the Mao era, certain prerevolution elites transmitted one type of elite status to their offspring to a surprising degree. Party elites, in contrast, were hit hard by radical Maoism but recovered quickly afterward, and their offspring inherited elite status at much higher rates.

Intergenerational Earnings Mobility Among Daughters and Sons: Evidence from Sweden and a Comparison with the United States

AbstractThis article adopts Chadwick and Solon's (2002) model by using family earnings in the study of intergenerational earnings mobility with a highlight on the role of assortative mating. I analyze mean and quantile regression coefficients as well as transition matrices to investigate family earnings mobility between parents and daughters and parents and sons from Swedish register data. My findings indicate that Sweden has a higher degree of mobility compared to the United States, and that assortative mating also plays an important role as a channel through which income status is transmitted across generations in Sweden. However, the difference in intergenerational mobility patterns between the two countries does not, inherently, depend on factors that affect the marriage match. Swedish daughters and sons exhibit a rather similar scheme of intergenerational earnings transmission. Daughters tend to be slightly more mobile than sons, and the difference between their elasticity estimates is small but statistically significant. The quantile regression approach reveals that parents' family earnings are less important as an explanatory variable at the upper end of the children's earnings distribution than they are at the bottom, while transition matrices show substantial earnings persistence in the top earnings class.

The effects of measurement error and omitted variables when using transition matrices to measure intergenerational mobility

This paper examines the consequences of specification error when transition matrices are used to analyse patterns of intergenerational mobility. We show that classical measurement error in both the child’s and parent’s earnings can lead to biased results, with summary mobility measures biased by as much as 20% in some cases. Furthermore our results suggest that the extent of the bias is most severe in the tails of the distribution. Omitted conditioning variables appear to have a modest effect on transition matrices in our model.

Unequal chances: family background and economic success

Is United States the land of equal opportunity or is playing field tilted in favor of those whose parents are wealthy, well educated, and white? If family background is important in getting ahead, why? And if processes that transmit economic status from parent to child are unfair, could public policy address problem? Unequal Chances provides new answers to these questions by leading economists, sociologists, biologists, behavioral geneticists, and philosophers. New estimates show that intergenerational inequality in United States is far greater than was previously thought. Moreover, while inheritance of wealth and better schooling typically enjoyed by children of well-to-do contribute to this process, these two standard explanations fail to explain extent of intergenerational status transmission. The genetic inheritance of IQ is even less important. Instead, parent-offspring similarities in personality and behavior may play an important role. Race contributes to process, and intergenerational mobility patterns of African Americans and European Americans differ substantially.

Intergenerational Mobility in Modern China

In this article, we study patterns of intergenerational mobility in modern China. We use data from the Social Structure in Modern China Survey, which was conducted in 1988 among urban and rural populations of two municipalities and four provinces in mainland China. Both absolute mobility and relative mobility rates are examined with regard to theoretical propositions relevant to industrialism and socialism. Of emerging patterns, we find no evidence in support of increasing upward mobility of the working population. Instead, total mobility and upward mobility from farm origins into manual destinations, and from farm and manual origins into non-manual destinations reflect changing state policies in economic development, control over population movement and sponsorship of farm and working class origins. Trends of social fluidity show no monotonically increasing openness for three ten year cohorts of men and women. Compared with men, class allocation is more strongly related to class origin for women.

Patterns of Intergenerational Mobility in Income and Earnings

This paper characterizes the patterns of intergenerational mobility in the United States using data for matched parent/child pairs from the National Longitudinal Surveys. In general, what is found is far from the extremes of either perfect mobility or perfect immobility. Parents' log income explains only about 9 percent to 11 percent of the variation in children's log incomes. Earnings exhibit more mobility than does total income, and the difference is most striking for daughters. The paper also identifies the influence of family background characteristics on mobility. The addition of these background variables adds another 3 to 5 percent age points to the R2 in the intergenerational earnings and income regressions. Copyright 1992 by MIT Press.