Hate Crime Research Articles

Reducing Hate Crimes: The Role of Racial Contexts and Minority Representation in U.S. State Protective Services

This study examines how minority representation in state protective services agencies impacts hate crimes, with a focus on the influence of racial contexts. It explores the racial dynamics of representation effects by examining both minority and non-minority police officers and citizens, including potential perpetrators and victims across various minority groups. Using two datasets over 15 years (2005–2019), we analyze how minority representation influences disparities among hate crime victims and offenders as well as victims’ identification of such crimes. Our findings support the positive impact of minority representation in law enforcement but suggest that the benefits are not evenly distributed across minority groups and are contingent on the racial makeup of their communities. Black and Asian officer representation significantly reduces victim disparities within their respective groups, while Hispanic representation shows limited effects. Black representation decreases offender disparities in predominantly white communities but does not increase the likelihood of victims identifying hate crimes.

The Invisibility of the Multiply Stigmatized Patient: Intersections of Ethnic Prejudice and Stigma of Chronic Disease in Medical Students.

Ethnic prejudice in healthcare has been widely examined, yet little is known about its intersection with stigma and prejudice based on one's health status. The present study investigates the intersections of ethnic prejudice and stigma of chronic disease in a healthcare setting as shaping unique forms of disadvantage. From an intersectional perspective, we examined whether ethnically diverse patients affected by stigmatized health conditions would be differentially perceived and cared for by prospective medical doctors. In a within-subjects, experimental design, preclinical medical students read, and evaluated clinical vignettes describing patients, who were presented as either White Italian or Middle Eastern migrants and were affected by visible and concealable stigmatized chronic conditions. Emotional reactions, attributions about disease-onset, caretaking attitudes, and meta-beliefs about patient disclosure behavior were assessed. Results showed that when reading of patients affected by visible compared to concealable stigmatized conditions medical students experienced stigma-related emotions (e.g., disgust, pity, fear) and attributed patients a higher tendency to be embarrassed, to hide, and to avoid disclosure for fear of others' negative reactions. However, Middle Eastern migrants when affected by conditions with visible and behavioral manifestations were attributed a lesser tendency to feel embarrassed, to hide, and to avoid illness disclosure for fear of others' negative reactions compared to White Italian patients with the same conditions. These findings indicate that at the intersection of ethnic prejudice and health-related stigma, multiply stigmatized patients may become invisible and not fully considered in the eyes of medical students. Present results underscore the need to enhance diversity representation in higher medical education for a more inclusive healthcare curriculum and practice.

An archive of modern medical culture: the critique of turn-of-the-century medical discourses in Gertrude Stein’s Three Lives

ABSTRACT Through a close reading of Gertrude Stein’s depiction of illness in Three Lives (1909), this article argues that the text addresses the emerging problems posed by the advancement of modern medicine and critiques some of the dominant medical discourses at the turn of the century. This article discusses the text’s challenge to the dominant medical discourses of the time from three perspectives: its problematisation of modern medicine’s tendency to ignore the context in which the patient is situated; its exposure of the hierarchical relationship between the physician and the patient; and its questioning of medical ideals such as objectivity, certainty, and cure. The article also demonstrates Stein’s fusion of feminist and medical critiques and her integration of racial, ethnic, and national dynamics into her reflection on turn-of-the-century medical culture. It thus proposes Three Lives as an archive of turn-of-the-century medical culture, particularly modern medicine’s entanglement with gender, racial, ethnic, and national tensions.

Fake News and National Security Threats in Nigeria: The Role of Media in Shaping Public Perception and Policy Responses

The proliferation of fake news presents a critical threat to national security, with Nigeria being a prominent example. This study examines the relationship between fake news dissemination and national security threats, focusing on the media's role in shaping public perception and influencing policy responses. Using a mixed-methods approach, the research incorporates content analysis of Nigerian media, public opinion surveys, and interviews with policymakers and security experts. The findings illustrate how fake news intensifies conflicts, deepens social divisions, and hampers governmental security efforts. The study also highlights the role of traditional and social media in spreading misinformation, leading to diminished public trust in official communications. Case studies on election-related misinformation, ethnic tensions, and terrorist propaganda reveal how media narratives shape societal reactions and government strategies. In addition, the research evaluates current anti-fake news policies and suggests measures to mitigate its impact on national security. The study emphasizes the urgent need for coordinated efforts between media, government, and civil society to combat misinformation and enhance public resilience. These insights contribute to the broader discourse on media and national security, providing empirical evidence from Nigeria with implications for other nations facing similar challenges.

The Cultural Legacy of Historical Ethnic Violence: The Impact on Access to Finance and Innovation

Using the case of the pogroms that took place in the historical region of the 'Pale of Settlement' in Eastern Europe, this paper analyzes the cultural legacy of ethnic violence and its long-term economic impact on access to finance and on corporate innovation. We find that firms in regions with a higher historical intensity of ethnic persecution face greater financial constraints, relying more on internal finance and experiencing reduced access to external finance. These financial limitations are linked to sluggish innovation activities among present-day firms. We propose that a mechanism of financial antipathy, rooted in a persistent anti-market culture fostered by historical ethnic animosity, explains these effects and reflects a long-term degradation of local social capital. Our results are supported by causal evidence using instrumental variables based on the precursors of historical inter-ethnic violence. The animosity and discrimination against the minority group appear to transfer to the broader economic activities in which that group was involved, creating lasting economic consequences for the majority population – consequences that continue to affect financial development and innovation to the present day.

Lessons from Holocaust Perpetration Learned by German Law Enforcement?

While right-wing extremism and related hate crimes, and anti-Semitism rise, Holocaust education for law enforcement provides crucial historical awareness and strengthens competence in decision-making and ethical judgment. In Berlin, law enforcement officers participate in Holocaust education programs at the Wannsee Conference Memorial and the Topography of Terror on the grounds of the former Reich Security Main Office (Reichsicherheitshauptamt). While the law enforcement officers participating in the programs possess basic pre-knowledge of the Holocaust and Nazi-era crimes, the programs help them deepen their understanding of Nazi history. However, they demonstrate limited awareness of perpetrator research and the role of the German Order Police (Ordnungspolizei) in the Nazi era, with little improvement in this area after the Holocaust Education programs at memorials based in Berlin. This highlights the need for more comprehensive educational efforts to address these gaps and foster a more thorough understanding of their institutional history.

1 Samuel 25:23–28 and Conflict Resolution in Nigeria: A Literary Reading

This study aims to explore the application of the biblical passage 1 Samuel 25:23–28 in addressing and resolving conflicts in Nigeria. The study identifies several key conflict resolution strategies from Abigail’s actions, including humility, strategic communication, proactive peacemaking, and the appeal to higher principles. These strategies are found to be relevant and potentially effective in addressing conflicts in Nigeria, particularly in contexts marked by ethnic, religious, and political tensions. Nigeria, Africa's most populous nation, is a country rich in cultural diversity, natural resources, and economic potential. However, it has been beset by numerous conflicts over the years, ranging from ethnic and religious violence to political instability and resource-based disputes. The aphorism in I Samuel 25:23–28 is important in understanding the underlying causes and dynamics of these conflicts, and it is essential for developing effective resolution strategies. Data is gathered from biblical commentaries, theological texts, and scholarly articles. Emerged themes are: i) respect and humility; ii) taking responsibility and mediation; iii) acknowledging wrongdoing and deflecting blame; iv) appealing to higher principles; v) offering reparation and tangible solutions; and vi) seeking forgiveness and affirming positive outcomes. These strategies are found to be relevant and potentially effective in addressing conflicts in Nigeria, particularly in contexts marked by ethnic, religious, and political tensions. Abigail's approach, characterised by humility, tact, and moral persuasion, can serve as a model for contemporary peacemakers.

The Implications of the Nationalist Movement on Inter-ethnic Political Tensions in Eastern Ukraine

Ukraine is one of the former Soviet Union states that gained independence in 1991. Ukraine's long history is inextricably linked with conflict, particularly following the Bolshevik invasion of 1921-1922. Under Soviet rule, the Ukrainian people endured considerable suffering across social, economic, and political spheres. One of the darkest chapters in Ukraine's history is the Holodomor. This event ultimately catalysed the Ukrainian independence movement. The Holodomor also engendered an anti-Soviet (Russian) sentiment, as it was regarded as an act of genocide against ethnic Ukrainians. Anti-Russian campaigns intensified following Ukraine's independence and manifested in the Ukrainization movement. However, this movement inadvertently fostered inter-ethnic tensions among Ukrainian citizens, particularly those of Russian ethnicity. The research employs a traditional literature review methodology, involving qualitative data collection and analysis. The conclusion that whilst the Ukrainian Nationalist Movement indeed has implications for political tensions between ethnic Ukrainians and Russians, this is largely attributable to the Ukrainian government's failure to accommodate the aspirations of national minority groups, such as ethnic Russians, in policy-making processes

Victims of religious hate crime: Victimisation of Muslims, Jews and Hindus compared

The surge in Hate Crime within the United Kingdom has disproportionately impacted religious communities, particularly Muslims, Jews and Hindus. This article provides a comprehensive exploration of hate crimes targeting these three religious groups in the United Kingdom. Through qualitative interviews with victims, the study aims to analyse their immediate response following the victimisation. Drawing insights from 30 individual interviews and three focus groups, the research uniquely combines three distinct religious groups for comparative analysis, revealing both commonalities and differences in their victimisation experiences. Findings highlight the pervasive nature of victimisation, emphasising community visibility and perceived safety. Notably, collective responsibility is evident among Muslim and Jewish participants. This research contributes to a nuanced understanding of challenges faced by victims, emphasising the need for robust law enforcement measures.

The Role of Citizenship Education on Enhancing the Promotion of Unity in Nigeria: Implication for Primary Education

Citizenship education, as a pedagogical approach, emphasizes the development of civic responsibility, tolerance, and national identity, which are essential for addressing the challenges posed by Nigeria's ethnic, cultural, and religious diversity. The study explores how the integration of citizenship education in primary schools helps inculcate values such as respect for diversity, patriotism, and conflict resolution skills among young learners. Using a survey research design, data were collected from 320 Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) students from Nwafor Orizu College of Education, Nsugbe, and Federal College of Education (Technical), Umunze, in Anambra State, Nigeria. Purposive random sampling was employed to select respondents from Social Studies, Economics, English, and Igbo Language departments. A structured questionnaire with 15 items on a 4-point Likert scale was used for data collection, and reliability was confirmed using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient. Data analysis involved mean scores, with a cutoff of 2.50 for agreement. Findings revealed that ethnic hatred, religious intolerance, distrust, lack of basic education, and colonial policies are significant barriers to unity in Nigeria. Citizenship education was found to promote unity by enhancing the appreciation of diversity, instilling values of cooperation and tolerance, and equipping individuals with conflict resolution skills. However, challenges such as a lack of qualified teachers, insufficient instructional materials, and inadequate commitment from educators hinder its effectiveness. The findings highlight the importance of incorporating citizenship education into primary education to cultivate values that promote unity among young learners. The research findings imply the need for systematic transformation in the basic education curriculum, by integrating programs that comprehensively teach the values ​​of tolerance, cooperation, and conflict resolution.

Python көмегімен этникалық топтар арасындағы қарым-қатынасты зерттеу: талдау әдістері мен нәтижелері

Ethnic group relations are examined using Python-based data analysis techniques. Political, economic and sociological factors influencing ethnic relations are studied, and a comprehensive analysis is carried out using correlation, regression and cluster analysis. Primary data was collected through population censuses, public opinion surveys and statistical reports. The results show that economic instability and low levels of education contribute to increased ethnic tensions, while political stability and progressive legislation reduce the level of conflict. Cluster analysis revealed three main groups of people with different income, education and ethnic views. The study highlights the need to use an integrated approach and analytical methods to develop effective political and economic strategies aimed at improving inter-ethnic relations.

BOOK REVIEW: World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability

Amy Chua ‘World on fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability’ made up of three parts of twelve chapters with an introduction, afterword, notes and index published by William Heinemann, UK in 2003. It is an exposition of minority ethnic group exploitation and domination which accentuates hatred, envy, assassination and murder as the signpost of globalization and free market economy blossoms and shapes asymmetrical relations and development amongst groups vis-à-vis minority-majority dominance(P:163).

Shifting sands: the geopolitical impact of climate change on Africa’s resource conflicts

ABSTRACT This study examines the complex relationships among climate change, resource scarcity, and conflict in Africa, focusing on the regions of Darfur, Lake Chad, and South Sudan. This highlights how climate change is a threat multiplier, intensifying socio-political challenges and worsening competition over vital resources such as water and arable land. Through a comparative analysis of these regions, this paper explores how environmental degradation, combined with weak governance and ethnic tensions, has led to conflict. In Darfur, prolonged droughts and desertification have exacerbated competition between herders and farmers. At the same time, in the Lake Chad Basin, the drastic shrinking of the lake has created fertile ground for extremist groups, including Boko Haram. In South Sudan, the impacts of erratic rainfall and water scarcity have contributed to ongoing civil conflict. This paper emphasizes the importance of addressing these climate-driven conflicts through better governance, climate adaptation, and resource management. Ultimately, this study contributes to the broader understanding of how climate change exacerbates conflict in vulnerable regions and underscores the need for coordinated international efforts to mitigate these impacts.

Accompany me – using a virtual learning companion to inform adolescents in Germany about everyday racism on social media

ABSTRACT Social media offer valuable benefits ranging from social exchange to entertainment. However, everyday racism is also part of many users’ daily social media experience. Unlike overt racist attacks such as name-calling or humiliation, everyday racism often manifests in subtle, unconscious assumptions and remarks that may initially appear harmless but can be deeply hurtful to those affected. As everyday racism often appears “hidden,” there is a lack of sophisticated approaches to raise awareness of everyday racism on social media. Related research has shown that virtual learning companions (VLCs) can support users in various digital contexts. Therefore, we consider a VLC for raising awareness and informing users about everyday racism on social media, with the aim to improve their ability to recognize everyday racism. In the long term, this should empower users to actively counteract everyday racism, by reporting posts that reflect discriminatory content. Results from an experimental study (N = 100; participants aged 13 to 16) indicate that prior experiences of discrimination and exclusion impair users’ ability to recognize everyday racism accurately in social media posts. Repeatedly addressing everyday racism increased performances in detecting it. This paper discusses practical implications for the use of VLCs and ethical considerations.

HATE CRIMES AS A CULTURAL PHENOMENON: THE EXPERIENCE OF LATVIAN SOCIETY

Changes in the international situation during the last decades have become the reason for new conflicts and aggravations at the national level. The 2015 European migrant crisis (Refugee crisis), 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have become a catalyst for increase in hate crimes. In order to recognize the criminal offense as a hate crime in the sense of the Latvian regulatory framework, it is necessary to establish two criteria: (a) the composition of the criminal offence is included in the Criminal Law; (b) a motive of hatred against a particular protected group of society can be stated in the criminal offence. It is the motive – hate or prejudice – that distinguishes hate crimes from other types of crimes.Prejudice is a negative assessment of a social group and its members. These are objectively unfounded assumptions and erroneous generalizations that, in the opinion of the offender, separate the representatives of this group from the rest of society. Persistent prejudices are called stereotypes. Unlike prejudice, stereotypes are not necessarily negative in nature. However, stereotypes are not based on objective truth either. It follows from court practice that hate crimes were directed against several groups of Latvian society: against ethnic groups (Latvians, Russians, Ukrainians, Jews, Gypsies or Roma, etc.), against representatives of various religious denominations, against asylum seekers, against people from other countries, against sexual minorities as well as against other groups. Stereotypes are often based on personal or negative cultural experiences of previous generations.In this context, it can be mentioned that it is specifically culture that is the basic factor according to which it is possible to understand, identify and reduce hate speech. Professor Aleksandrs Krugļevskis believed that with a change in cultural understanding, expanding public participation in cultural processes, the level of legal awareness will rise and tendencies, intentions to commit a criminal offense will disappear. Criminal law as a cultural factor creates a system that corresponds to the level of education and culture of the people. The above also corresponds to the vision of Latvia’s cohesive society policy “Guidelines for Cohesive and Active Civil Society 2021–2027”: mutual trust, participation, and cooperation between different social groups have improved among Latvian residents, and the level of tolerance has increased, stereotypes and prejudices against different social group representatives have decreased.Statistical data show that since the start of the war in Ukraine, the number of registered hate crimes in Latvia has increased. These show the relevance of the chosen topic. The authors of the article offer their vision of the problem of hate crimes, studying hate crimes as a cultural phenomenon, paying special attention to the experience of Latvian society in this area.

The Geopolitics of the Horn of Africa: Navigating Regional Conflicts and Global Interests

The Horn of Africa, comprising Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Eritrea, Sudan, and Djibouti, is one of the most geopolitically significant yet unstable regions in the world. This paper explores the complex interplay of internal conflicts, regional power struggles, and the influence of global actors in shaping the region’s security and political landscape. Internal divisions, particularly ethnic tensions and contested political systems, have led to protracted conflicts, such as the Somali civil war, the Ethiopian-Tigray conflict, and ongoing instability in Sudan. These conflicts are further compounded by external interventions, with global powers like the United States, China, and the Gulf States seeking strategic and economic footholds in the region. China’s Belt and Road Initiative and military investments, along with the Gulf States' engagement in regional proxy wars, illustrate the heightened geopolitical competition. The African Union (AU) and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) have played critical roles in mediating conflicts and providing peacekeeping forces, but their efforts have often been undermined by internal political divisions and external pressures. The findings suggest that long-term stability will require more effective regional cooperation, stronger governance, and a balanced approach to external engagement that prioritizes peace over geopolitical rivalry.

Legacies of Hate: The Psychological Legacy of the Ku Klux Klan.

The second coming of the Ku Klux Klan popularized the Klan and its ideas in the early 1920s, terrorizing Black American, their allies, and others deemed un-American. This article investigates the extent to which the cultural legacy of racial hatred of the Klan has persisted over the years. We use data from large online databases, multiverse analyses, and spatial models to evaluate whether regions with more historical Klan activity show higher levels of modern-day racial bias, and more modern-day White Supremacist activity. We find that regions with more Ku Klux Klan activity in the 1920s show higher levels of modern White Supremacist activity but, unexpectedly, lower levels of modern implicit and explicit racial bias. We discuss the implications of these findings for models linking historical events with present-day attitudes and behavior, and for situational models of bias more broadly.

The Western Balkans at a crossroads: an old war front in new geopolitical compositions

The Western Balkans is transforming into one of the primary fronts of confrontation between global powers, where Russia's and Serbia's hybrid strategies directly challenge the stability and sovereignty of countries in the region. This paper examines the complex dimensions of this hybrid warfare, focusing on recent attacks in Banjska and Zvecan, which signify a deliberate escalation aimed at destabilizing Kosovo. Through the use of demographic manipulations, sabotage of critical infrastructure, and the provocation of ethnic tensions, Russia and Serbia are leveraging the Balkans as a battleground to advance their strategic projects, such as “Srpski Svet” and “Ruski Mir”. By comparing this approach to cases in Georgia and Ukraine, the paper highlights the use of hybrid tools, from propagandistic narratives to direct interventions, as a model for undermining democratic structures and increasing influence in the region.

Reporting Anti-LGBTQI Hate Crime to the Police

Reporting Anti-LGBTQI Hate Crime to the Police

From Codex to World Heritage: The Relevance of Sahagún’s Work in the Study of Indigenous Cultures

The work of the Spanish friar Bernardino de Sahagún is widely recognized in the field of anthropology, primarily due to his methodological contributions. The research techniques he employed—such as learning the native language, placing emphasis on linguistic aspects to understand the culture and worldview of “the others”, carefully selecting informants from all social strata, and designing open-ended questionnaires—seem more akin to those of modern British social anthropology than to practices from 500 years ago. In 2015, his work was designated as part of UNESCO’s Memory of the World program, an acknowledgment aimed at highlighting his cultural contributions and preserving the world’s documentary heritage as a symbol of humanity’s collective memory. This designation has renewed Sahagún’s prominence as a precursor of this discipline. This study explores the impact of such recognition and the enduring value of his work. In a time like the present, where interethnic tensions and rejection of difference are on the rise, Sahagún’s work stands as an unquestionable legacy against intolerance and ethnocentrism.