Interethnic Conflict Research Articles

A HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL REVIEW OF SINGAPORE'S POLICY TOWARDS THE MALAYS AND THE MUSLIMS

When examining the condition of minorities around the world, we must pay attention to several factors such as their history, geopolitics, level of community development, patterns of integration, and the ideological style of the state in its policies. This journal article examines how Singapore's political policies towards the Malays and Muslims as minority groups. The research method used is the historical research method where data collection is done using literature review techniques. This research data analysis uses a political history approach to analyse Singapore's political policies in empowering religious communities in a secular state. The results show that Singapore has a vigilant and pragmatic attitude in making state policies in relation to Malay and Islam. This is due to its diverse demographics, its geopolitics flanked by Malaysia and Indonesia, and its past history of inter-ethnic conflict. In its development, the Singapore government has chosen the path of accommodation in making policies related to Muslims and Malays. Islam is realised as a benchmark for Singapore's domestic and foreign policies.

КУЛЬТУРНО-ДОСУГОВАЯ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТЬ МУЗЕЯ В СИСТЕМЕ ПАТРИОТИЧЕСКОГО ВОСПИТАНИЯ УЧАЩЕЙСЯ МОЛОДЕЖИ

The formation of patriotism of the younger generation today is one of the sig-nificant problems of the state and society. Multipolarity of the opinions, judgements, world and interethnic conflicts make adolescents’ socialization and self-determination difficult. Functioning of the entire system of patriotic education and the purposeful activities of the social institutions intended to do that is significant in these conditions. The article considers the experience of Kyakhta museum of local histo-ry of the academician V.A. Obruchev in the personality’s formation, patriot-ism, spiritual and moral development. The work provides the results of study-ing the schoolchildren of Kyakhta, their assessment of some forms of the mu-seum work.

The Impact of Resource Utilization Practices on Inter-Ethnic Conflicts in Nakuru County, Kenya

Globally, conflicts arising from resource use are increasingly becoming common. This generated inter-ethnic violence that has caused death, strained relations among communities, led to loss of property, displacements, slowed economic growth, and increased sex-related crimes. Despite the government, local communities, and NGOs, among other institutions, putting effort into minimizing conflicts, they have yet to find a lasting solution. The overarching objective of the study was to evaluate the effects of resource-use practices on inter-ethnic conflicts in Nakuru County, Kenya. The study was conducted in Nakuru County and targeted household heads, government officials, civil society organizations, and community members. There were 246 respondents, taken as the sample size for the study. The study found that the major effects of conflicts were loss of life, displacement, loss of property, ethnic differences, and low income. The study concludes that the effects of resource-use practices on interethnic conflicts include loss of life, population displacement, discrimination, loss of property, and loss of market for goods, all of which have a significant impact on the economic status of the affected community. The research suggests that the consequences of resource-use practices on inter-ethnic disputes in the study area should be improved both at the national and county levels. This would make it possible for the people living in the area to advance economically.

Tales of Turmoil: Unravelling Trends and Legacies of Resource Conflict on Women in Laikipia West Sub-County, Kenya

This article discusses trends of inter-ethnic conflict in Laikipia West Sub-County and the effects of the conflict on women. Inter- ethnic conflict in the study area can be traced back to the period before 1895 when the white settlers began establishing their homes in Laikipia County. Prior to the British colonization, this area was largely dominated by the Maasai and Samburu communities who were pastoralists. With the coming of white settlers most of the lands were seized and the communities displaced from their areas. Many white settlers opted to practice ranching since most of the lands were semi-arid. Later immigrants resulted to irrigation agriculture leading to the horticultural boom in Laikipia in the 1980s. With the coming of the whites and the existence of inadequate pastures for the pastoral communities, the area has continued to witness unceasing conflicts. This article examined the historical trends of the conflict and the effects of conflict on women in Laikipia West Sub-County. This study employed the conflict theory by Karl Marx. In respect to this, data was obtained from primary and secondary sources. Primary data was obtained from the Kenya National Archives in Nairobi and from oral interviews with relevant informants. Secondary data was obtained from relevant books, journal articles, internet, theses, and conference papers. Data obtained was then evaluated and analysed. Data was analysed in three analytical frames namely: theoretical framework, documentary review and content analysis

Ethnic, National and Identity Demands in Iran on the Axis of Justice and Development: A Grounded Theory Method Study among Five Major Ethnic Groups

The identity/ethnic diversity in Contemporary Iran has co-occurred with the development of globalization processes and brought about interethnic conflict, Orientation of identity and seeking justice to eradicate discrimination and inequality in achieving social development. This is the issue that the present research has sought to investigate among the Persian (fars), Azeri, Kurd, Arab, and Baloch in Iran. The article has adopted a hybrid qualitative approach (GT), in thirteen provinces of Iran to extract and classify data in the following areas: religious identity and national identity, interethnic cultural borders, ethnic and national movement dead-end, and a peace-oriented approach to resolving the crisis.

Income inequality in Guyana: Class or ethnicity? New evidence from survey data

This paper utilises recent survey data to estimate income inequality in Guyana between 1990–2021. It finds that class-based inequality exceeds ethnic income inequality, and the latter is more pronounced in the top 10 percent of the population. The over-representation of Indo- and Indigenous-Guyanese in the top decile increases class inequality within these groups because Afro- and Mixed-Guyanese are over-represented in the bottom 90 percent of the population. Also, the evidence shows that electoral turnover in 2015 increased the dominance of Indo-Guyanese in the top 10 percent relative to other groups. Moreover, the paper demonstrates that fiscal policy has more explanatory power than monetary policy and structural reforms in explaining the dynamics of income inequality. Overall, the evidence indicates that intra-class competition for ethnic dominance of the top decile may account for inter-ethnic conflict as politicians invest in ethnic prejudice to weaken inter-class competition and strengthen the intra-class contest.

Influence of Statist Inter-ethnic Economic Transformation in the Management of Inter- ethnic Conflicts in Bungoma County, Kenya

Globally, disputes over economic resources often complicated inter-ethnic conflicts. In Kenya, specifically in Bungoma County inter-ethnic economic reasons underpinned 1963 including 1992 conflicts. Objective of the study was to examine the influence of statist inter-ethnic economic integration in management of inter-ethnic conflict in Bungoma. A conceptual framework underpinned by Lederach’s Conflict Transformation and Gultang’s Conflict Triangle guided the study. A descriptive research design was applied. The study was conducted in Bungoma County. Population was sampled by Simple Radom and Purposively. The sample size of 400 participants used was derived from 1375065 population using Yamane 1967 formula. Questionnaires, interviews, Focus Group Discussions and document analysis were instruments used. Microsoft Excel, thematisation, corroboration and verification analysed data. The findings were: Unlike eldership 42%, intermarriage 23% and culture 20%, 15% of respondents agreed that trade initially influenced inter-ethnic co-existence. Its role was alienated and differentiated by colonization. Statist inter-ethnic economic transformation mutated from inter-ethnic inequitable: Economic distribution and access to lack of resources and high population all rated at 16% to inter-ethnic economic political neglect 21%, economic stagnation 15% and competition over resources 17%. Inter-ethnic economic integration diversity policies identified were to be guided by economic equity, population spread and affirmative action. Challenges established were inter-ethnic iniquities in economic, education and development. The study recommends enforcement of inter-ethnic equity policies in resource distribution, jobs and in development.

Risks of inter-ethnic conflict in the North Caucasus in the perceptions of youth

The article analyzes the assessments and perceptions of the North Caucasus youth about the state of interethnic relations in the region. The North Caucasian region is distinguished by a high level of significance of confessional, ethnic and group identities, which creates the risk of conflict in interethnic relations. Significant differences remain in the degree of ethnic and confessional self-awareness among Russian and North Caucasian youth. The issues of compatibility of various value and socio-cultural foundations of the worldview of young people, the formation of unifying civil and cultural-civilizational foundations of the all-Russian identity are gaining importance. The purpose is to determine the conflict potential of interethnic relations in the North Caucasus in the perceptions of youth. Objectives are to identifying the causes of interethnic tension, determining the ethno-confessional factors of the conflict potential of inter-ethnic relations among young people, the degree of readiness to personally participate in ethno-confessional conflicts in the interests of their ethnic and confessional group, the significance of the main macro-identities: all-Russian, ethnic and confessional. When working on the research methodology, special attention was paid to modern Russian and foreign theoretical and methodological approaches to inter-ethnic conflicts, the role of ethno-political and economic factors of conflict potential and the determination of the causes of inter-ethnic tension in a multi-ethnic environment. Empirical data were obtained by a survey-questionnaire conducted in February-March 2023. 1,400respondents were interviewed– students of leading universities in the North Caucasus. A sub-sampling was carried out according to nationality and attitude to religion. The level of interethnic tension in the North Caucasus is assessed by the respondents as low. At the same time, the potential for conflict and the mobilization potential of ethnicity, their dependence on national identity, remains. Most of the respondents singled out socio-cultural reasons as the main reasons for interethnic tension in the North Caucasus: rejection of the culture and values of other peoples, hostility and prejudice towards other peoples. The all-Russian identity has been formed and is significant for all groups of respondents. Ethnic and confessional identities are also of great importance for North Caucasian youth. In the North Caucasus, there remain latent risks of conflict in interethnic relations among the youth, the mobilization potential of ethnic and confessional identity. The main causes of interethnic tension are of a value-ideological nature. In the minds of young people there is a high significance, along with the all-Russian, ethnic and confessional identity. There is a tendency for the "field of conflict" to flow from the ethno-political into the socio-cultural sphere. Emotional-psychological and socio-cultural reasons for young people are of greater importance than socio-economic and ethno-political ones.

Metaphors and pseudometaphors of language as controversial messages in public discourse about Serbian

Abstract Set in the contemporary public discourse about the Serbian language, this paper demonstrates how metaphors of and about language constructed with the source domains of violence and war (e.g., language occupation, language as battlefield, to fight for language) may serve nationalistic political aims and act as conflict-inciting messages, under the pretenses of typical language purism or ‘language care’. The concept of pseudometaphor is introduced as a figuration-based discursive strategy whereby metaphors for language, underpinned by the language-language users metonymy, may serve as tools for covertly conveying controversial messages about their respective language users. The analysis covers public discourse published in a span of eight years (2010–2018), involving institutionalized language and political campaigns, and less institutionalized public language debates. As convergent evidence for pseudo-metaphoricity of the language-war/violence metaphors and their potential for instigating inter-ethnic conflict, the analysis includes critical voices that expose the dominant ideology through literalization of their metaphorical models.

Historical Rethinking of Relations with the First Republic of Armenia and the United States of America: The Dilemma of Orientation and Expectations

This article examines the features of relations with the First Republic of Armenia and the United States of America in the context of the dilemma of orientation and expectations of the Armenian political elite and society. The purpose of this study is to determine the characteristics of the influence of interethnic conflicts on the Armenian population and political elite after the February Revolution of 1917 on the territory of the Russian Empire. The main attention is paid to identifying general and specific elements in the process of restoring independent Armenian statehood at the end of May 1918. The scientific novelty lies in the study of transformative processes and the long break of independent Armenian statehood, the people’s and liberation struggle, as well as the geopolitical developments in the region in the context of the clash of both diplomatic and military, political and economic interests. As a result, after lengthy negotiations, on February 25, 1919, the assembly was presented with a single demand of the Armenians for recognition of the Armenian state. The characteristic features of such decisions are highlighted and described, on the basis of which it was proposed to transfer Armenia under the guardianship of the Entente and transfer its mandate to one of the countries for at least twenty years. It is emphasized that the Armenian delegations expressed their desire to transfer the patronage (mandate) of a united, independent and free Armenia to the United States of America or the newly formed League of Nations.

Ethnicity, cultural hybridity & Felanee: women question in India’s Northeast

ABSTRACT Women and children have often been affected by conflicts taking place in India’s Northeast. Although human rights abuse by armed forces and militias has been addressed in academia time and again, the weaponisation of ‘rape’ has not declined in the region as evinced by the recent incident in Manipur. As such this essay argues that solidarity among women can not only prevent such heinous crimes but can also dismantle the patriarchal structures that breed rape cultures. Further, literature can work as an agency through which such consciousness of protest and solidarity can be generated. By taking into account the political and cultural discourses of this region and its manifestation in literary works with reference to Arupa Patangia Kalita’s novel The Story of Felanee the essay argues that ethnic assertions diminish the rights of women due to the patriarchal nature of these societies. Since the inter-ethnic conflicts are engineered by the patriarchs of a community in which the women are hapless sufferers, Felanee’s resilience, like the grannies of Shaheen Bagh, exemplifies resistance against oppressive structures. The essay explores the literary representation of patriarchal conditioning of ethnic resurgence, its contestation with cultural hybridisation, and the subsequent dehumanisation of women.

Influence of Statist Inter-ethnic Political Leadership Transformation in the Management of Inter-ethnic Conflicts in Bungoma County, Kenya

The study interrogates the influence of statist inter-ethnic political leadership transformation in the management of inter-ethnic conflicts in Bungoma County. In Kenya, specifically in Bungoma, the 1963 conflict in the region acquired a political and national outlook. In 1992, despite 29 years of independence, the violence was unparalleled. The specific objective of the study was to examine the effect of statist inter-ethnic political leadership integration in the management of inter-ethnic conflict in Bungoma County. The study followed a conceptual framework that was based on Lederach's Conflict Transformation and Gultang's Conflict Triangle theories. A descriptive research design was adopted. By using the Yamane 1967 formula, a sample size of 400 participants was derived from the 1375065 population. Participants were distributed randomly, purposefully, and proportionately. Questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions (FGD), and document analysis were used to collect primary and secondary data, respectively. Microsoft Excel performed both quantitative and qualitative data analysis through thematization, corroboration, and verification. The findings were: Unlike inter-marriage (23%), culture (20%), and trade (15%), 42% of respondents concurred that elders were key in influencing inter-ethnic co-existence. However, colonisation alienated them and made them distinct in their roles. Independent statist political leadership transformation mutated from precipitating inter-ethnic inclined: corruption and greed 17%, political repression 16%, political participation in government 15%, punishment 14%, torture 13%, and demotion 12% to inter-ethnic integration of glimpses of diversity policies into political leadership. Even though peacebuilding was going on, the biggest problems that still needed to be solved were the enforcement of inter-ethnic political leadership integration policies in Bungoma County, the translation of the inter-ethnic political leadership transformation initiative into documentary and creative art, and the separation of administrative and political boundaries from ethnic boundaries.

Extra-Poliical Analysis of Interethnic Relations

The article discusses the main psychological mechanisms that contribute to the formation of interethnic conflicts. The author describes the following psychological phenomena: historical mental trauma inflicted by a hostile group; narcissism of small differences; identification with the aggressor; transmission of traumatic experiences to the next generations; division of all ideas and all people into ‘we’ and ‘they’; importance of culture and language in the formation and personality’s social functioning. The conclusion substantiates an original hypothesis about the intensification of interethnic conflicts around the world in the twenty-first century.

The History of Ethnicised Politics in Kenya and its Impact on the Management of the Country’s Public Affairs

This paper deploys historical analysis, conceptual analysis and critical reflection to examine the history of ethnicised politics in Kenya and its negative impact on the management of the country’s public affairs. It sets out with a conceptualisation of ‘ethnicised politics’. It then traces the growth of ethnicised politics in Kenya from the dawn of British colonialism to the present. Thereafter, it reflects on the five-pronged negative impact of ethnicised politics on the country, namely, the gross disparities in economic development along ethno-regional lines, the disproportionately limited economic opportunities for ethnic minorities, the stunting of the growth of issue-based politics, the stoking of violent inter-ethnic conflicts, and the vulnerability of highly urbanised persons and/or those born out of mixed marriages with no strong ethnic loyalties. It concludes that contrary to the widely-held view that Kenyans ought to abandon their ethnic identities in pursuit of ‘nation-building’, respect for the right to cultural identity and the promotion of inter-ethnic equity would make political mobilisation along ethnic lines less attractive.

Colonial State and the Transformation of Inter-Ethnic Conflicts in Uasin Gishu County Up to 1963

Inter-ethnic hostilities have persisted over a considerable duration on a worldwide scale, originating from socio-economic and political issues. Ethnic conflict has been extensively documented in several African countries throughout the continent, spanning from the pre-colonial era to the colonial period. The occurrence of this ethnic conflict can be attributed to the policies implemented by the colonial state. Hence, the principal aim of this research was to document and examine the extent of the colonial state's engagement in the endeavor of mitigating inter-ethnic conflicts in Uasin Gishu County, particularly during the era preceding 1963. The primary objective of this study was to examine the impact of the colonial state on the development of inter-ethnic conflicts in Uasin Gishu County, specifically focusing on the period leading up to 1963. The research employed a historical methodology, incorporating primary and secondary data sources. The study incorporated a diverse range of primary data sources, such as annual reports, conclusions derived from appointed commissions, interviews conducted with key stakeholders, court judgments, and official government statistics. In addition, the study incorporated secondary materials. The sources encompassed a heterogeneous array of materials, including printed books, scholarly papers, and unpublished archival documents. The study was positioned within the existing body of literature by incorporating these sources. Land alienation and the subsequent establishment of settler farms coupled with setting up squiredom labour served to inadvertently lay the foundation for inter-ethnic friction. The study posits that the implementation of a holistic strategy that encompasses various actors from both the public and private domains is necessary to effectively tackle the root causes of disputes and avert their recurrence in subsequent instances. Simultaneously, it is imperative to enhance regulations to dissuade the political class from employing land issues as a tactic to incite ethnic differences and escalate tribal wars within the designated region. The output of this research is expected to have a positive impact on various stakeholders, such as historians, policymakers, political bodies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and religious institutions. The aforementioned findings have the potential to make a significant contribution to the promotion of peace and justice in Uasin Gishu and similar contexts.

Konflik Antaretnis di Indonesia dan Upaya Penanggulangannya

The purpose of this study is to discuss the resolution of conflicts of violence and discrimination between ethnicities in Indonesia. This research method uses a qualitative type through literature studies by applying content analysis. The discussion of this study includes the causes of conflicts of violence and discrimination between ethnicities in Indonesia, inter-ethnic conflicts that have occurred in Indonesia and the resolution of inter-ethnic conflicts in Indonesia. This study concluded that inter-ethnic conflict in Indonesiamust have concrete solutions so that in the future similar cases do not occur again. So the way is that there is a need for legal protection, changing the system of religious understanding and reducing the appetite for distinction to avoid ethnic conflicts. This research is expected to have benefits for the enrichment of treasures for science especially religious studies.

The emergence of an independent Polish state and the problem of national minorities

The main approaches to the regulation of the status of national minorities in the Polish state restored after the First World War were investigated. They were reflected in the relevant provisions of the first Constitution of independent Poland (March 1921), which was a kind of compromise between the views of the Polish right-wing led by Roman Dmowski, who advocated the absolute dominance of ethnic Poles' interests, and the leaders of Polish socialist parties (T. Goluwko, L. Wasilewski), who wanted to support the national and cultural inspirations of minorities in exchange for their loyalty to the Polish state.
 The legal acts used to regulate the situation of national minorities were analysed. Their compliance with the international legal mechanisms for the protection of national minority rights, which began to operate in Europe within the framework of the Versailles-Washington system of international relations, in particular, the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles Minor, was determined. In case of compliance with the proclaimed legal norms, the Polish state had every chance to avoid an open confrontation with representatives of the non-title nation. However, the situation in Poland with regard to national minorities became a classic example of the discrepancy between law-making theory and law enforcement practice.
 It has been proved that due to the lack of mechanisms for monitoring compliance with international norms which were supposed to guarantee the rights of national minorities and imperfections in domestic legislation, the Polish authorities at various levels have repeatedly violated the democratic principles of the March 1921 Constitution and other legal acts designed to ensure equal rights for representatives of national minorities, which, in turn, created constant tension within the Second Polish Republic, destabilising the internal situation in the country.
 This situation was caused by a number of factors: the difficult economic situation, which provoked permanent tensions in society and the Poles' disrespect for members of national minorities. Artificially created borders after the First World War also provoked interethnic conflicts. Finally, it should be considered that the vast majority of Poles were supporters of the concept of the nation-state promoted by the National Democrats, which envisaged the assimilation of national minorities.

The Problem of Psychological Traumatization of War Participants

Key words: psychotrauma, combat stress (battle fatigue), stress factor, PTSD, mental reaction, emotional state In the modern world, a person is constantly exposed to various influences of the environment, which for an individual can be a source of mental trauma, and in such a situation, the symptoms of post-traumatic disorder can be quite often found in the surrounding environment. In recent years, it has become increasingly apparent that people are concerned about the events happening on Earth that lead to psychological trauma. Such attention is due to long-term inter-ethnic conflicts on the one hand, which eventually lead to wars, and on the other hand, to the rise of the consciousness of people and nations, which makes them bear mutual responsibility. In this situation, it is natural that psychology has become the reliable source of support which can conduct research and develop different methods to overcome similar situations. In the media and among the population, there is often a negative attitude towards combatants, as to people with a disturbed psyche, violators of generally accepted norms of behavior, etc. The lack of clear diagnostic and prognostic criteria creates significant difficulties in recognizing the initial manifestations of post-traumatic stress disorders, readaptation and rehabilitation of patients. In this regard, there is a growing interest in studying the characteristics of the personality and its functioning, which influence the choice and success of strategies for coping behavior. The remote, severe and long-term effects of post-traumatic stress disorder are of particular social relevance. Traumatic situations and their consequences occupy a significant place among negative emotional conditions. Traumatic life events often lead to stress, deterioration of mental health, various mental disorders and diseases. We may say that the events, which are considered traumatic for a person and are not overcome, change life and deform its image. Therefore, we consider it important to study traumatization, especially among war participants, because combat operations cause great trauma and are stressful by their nature. The work aims to conduct a theoretical analysis of the problem of traumatization of war participants.

The Destruction of the Old Bridge in Mostar: A Rupture in Collective Urban Space and Life

This article examines the destruction of the sixteenth-century pedestrian bridge of the city of Mostar, the Old Bridge, during the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–95) as a substantial disruption to the city’s urban fabric. The bridge was the symbol of the city, its most recognizable landmark, and a monument that linked two sides of the Neretva River into an integral urban unit. Reflecting on the repercussions of such violence in the context of the image of the city, I address the identity of the bridge, and the social relations inscribed in the materiality of the surrounding urban space. Due to the violence of the war and continued interethnic conflict, the meaning of the bridge changed; the construction of a new bridge on the same site was unable to repair breaches in the social relationships between Mostar’s communities. Architectural responses to rupture in the divided and contested city are exemplified in Mostar, an urban setting that has been ravaged by war, trauma, and ethno-nationalism.

Warung Kopi sebagai Ruang Publik untuk Membangun Harmoni Masyarakat Multikultural

Inter-ethnic conflicts often occur in West Kalimantan, especially in Pontianak City, especially between Dayak, Chinese, and Malay ethnicities. Therefore, to build harmony in life between ethnicities, public spaces are needed that are accessed by various groups. Coffee shops are one of the potential public spaces to build harmony between ethnic groups. This article aims to determine the existence of coffee shops as public spaces in Kota Pontianak and the role of coffee shops as a space to build harmony in Pontianak City. This article publishes the results of research that uses qualitative approaches with phenomenological methods, data collection using interviews, observation, observation techniques, and documentation. Data analysis uses an interactive analysis model. The research found that coffee rafting in Pontianak City becomes a public space that contains democratic, responsive, and meaningful values so that people from various ethnic and cultural backgrounds visit coffee shops to rest, discuss business affairs, do tasks, have meetings, and so on. People who visit coffee shops come from various ethnicities (Malay, Dayak, Chinese, Bugis, Javanese, and Madurese). Through the coffee shop, they meet to talk about various things, so that familiarity is well- built and strengthens social integration. Besides being able to build a harmonious inter-ethnic life, the existence of coffee shops can also increase the regional original income (PAD) of Pontianak City and absorb labor.