Intercollegiate Athletes Research Articles

Intrinsic Religiosity and Aggression in a Sample of Intercollegiate Athletes

Using self-report questionnaires, ratings of intrinsic religiosity were negatively correlated with those on aggressive attitudes and verbal aggression of 105 intercollegiate athletes.

Back Pain in Intercollegiate Rowers

Back pain is prevalent among intercollegiate rowers. We conducted a large-scale study to determine the rate of and the potential etiologic factors for clearly defined back pain that developed during intercollegiate rowing. Survey. Surveys from 1632 former intercollegiate rowing athletes were analyzed. These surveys concerned training methods and back pain before and during intercollegiate rowing. Back pain was defined as pain that lasted at least 1 week. Five hundred twenty-six subjects reported that back pain developed during intercollegiate rowing. Factors significantly associated with the development of back pain included age at the time of the survey; history of rowing before age 16; use of a hatchet oar blade; training with free weights, weight machines, and an ergometer; midline ergometer cable position; and ergometer training sessions longer than 30 minutes. Back pain while in college also was associated with higher mean college weight and height. Intercollegiate rowers in the last 10 years covered by this study were larger, started rowing at an earlier age, trained more intensely, and developed more back pain during college than their predecessors.

Intrinsic religiosity and social anxiety of intercollegiate athletes.

For 105 intercollegiate athletes intrinsic religiosity and social anxiety as measured by self-repot questionnaires were not associated.

Correlations for Organizational, Nonorganizational, and Intrinsic Religiosity with Social Support among Intercollegiate Athletes

The present study was a preliminary examination of the correlations among organizational, nonorganizational, and intrinsic religiosity and social support as measured by the Duke Religion Index and the Nonsupport scale of the Personality Assessment Inventory for 105 intercollegiate athletes (51 women). Scores among these measures were not correlated (-.05 to -.14).

EVALUATION OF AIR DISPLACEMENT PLETHYSMOGRAPHY FOR ASSESSING BODY DENSITY AND BODY COMPOSITION IN FEMALE ATHLETES

Body composition measures are important to female athletes and team personnel to assess training effectiveness and to monitor for adverse physiological changes. The use of multi-compartment models, which often require a measure of total body density (Db), are necessary to provide a more accurate measure of body composition in female athletes due to possible alterations in the densities and proportions of the fat-free masses. Traditionally, Db has been determined by hydrostatic weighing (HW). Recently, air displacement plethysmography (AP; Bod Pod; Life Measurement Instruments, Inc) has been proposed as an alternative technique for Db determination. PURPOSE: To compare AP measures of body volume (VbAP) and body density (DbAP) with HW measures of body volume (VbHW) and body density (DbHW), and to compare resulting 4-compartment model %Fat (4-Comp %Fat) measures when DbAP was substituted for DbHW in a group of female athletes. METHODS: Twenty-five female intercollegiate athletes completed AP, HW with residual volume measures, and additional body composition measures during a single testing session. Paired t-test were used to compare VbAP to VbHW, DbAP to DbHW, and 4-Comp %Fat measures. Regression analyses and total errors (TE) were used to assess the strengths of these relationships. RESULTS: Group mean comparisons (mean ± SE) showed that VbAP (62.09 ± 1.40 L) and DbAP (1.0455 ± 0.0023 g/cc) were significantly different (p < 0.01) from VbHW (61.37 ± 1.36 L) and DbHW (1.0584 ± 0.0021g/cc). Significant correlations were found for the Vb (r = 1.00) and Db (r = 0.84) measures. TE for Vb and Db were 0.83 L and 0.0143 g/cc, respectively. Further analysis revealed that 4-Comp %Fat (mean ± SE) using DbAP (24.8 ± 1.2%) was significantly (p < 0.01) greater than 4-Comp %Fat using DbHW (21.7 ± 1.2%). The correlation and TE between 4-Comp %Fat measures was r = 0.96 and 3.4%, respectively. CONCLUSION: These data show that AP systematically underestimated Db, and overestimated Vb and 4-Comp %Fat compared to HW measures in this group of female athletes.

BONE MINERAL DENSITY MEASURES IN COLLEGE FEMALE ATHLETES PARTICIPATING IN WEIGHTBEARING VS. NONWEIGHTBEARING SPORTS

Reduced total body and regional bone mineral density threatens both the quantity and quality of life of women by predisposing them to osteoporosis and subsequent fractures. Past research has demonstrated that women participating in high impact, weight bearing physical activity often experience favorable bone remodeling due to their athletic participation. In contrast, women participating in non-weightbearing physical activity may experience these phenomena to a lesser degree. PURPOSE: To examine bone mineral density (BMD; g/cm2) measures in female intercollegiate athletes currently participating in a variety of weightbearing (WB; n = 13) versus non-weightbearing (NWB; n = 11) sports. METHODS: Total body and regional bone scans were performed on twenty-four female athletes using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA; Lunar DPX-IQ). Group mean comparisons were used to compare BMD measures of athletes participating in WB versus NWB sports. RESULTS: Significant (p < 0.05) BMD differences (mean ± SE) were found at the proximal femur (1.173 ± 0.039 WB, vs 1.059 ± 0.025 NWB) and femoral neck (1.199 ± 0.038 WB, vs 1.092 ± 0.018 NWB) regions. No significant BMD differences were found for the total body (1.241 ± 0.020 WB, vs 1.197 ± 0.013 NWB), spine (1.254 ± 0.039 WB, vs 1.171 ± 0.026 NWB), and forearm (0.376 ± 0.020 WB, vs 0.353 ± 0.006 NWB) regions. CONCLUSION: The results of this study showed that BMD parameters of the proximal femur were significantly greater in female athletes participating in WB versus NWB sports. This study supports previous findings suggesting that the proximal femur is a likely skeletal region to find BMD differences due to type of physical activity participation.

One role or two? The function of psychological separation in role conflict.

Student athletes vary in how much they view their academic and athletic role identities as separate from and interfering with each other. The authors investigated the relation of these perceptions to psychological well-being in 200 intercollegiate athletes. Measures included role separation, interference, identity, and well-being. Correlations indicated that interference related negatively to well-being, whereas viewing the roles as distinct related positively to well-being. Regression analyses of demographic and role identity variables also showed a positive association between role separation and well-being, and a significant Separation x Interference interaction. Specifically, role interference was negatively related to well-being for those who viewed the two roles as distinct but unrelated for those who did not. The buffering effects of role separation are discussed.

Effects of Gender and Sport Type on Intercollegiate Athletes’ Perceptions of the Legitimacy of Aggressive Behaviors in Sport

This study examined 162 Division I-A intercollegiate athletes’ perceptions of the legitimacy of aggression in sport. Athletes in collision, contact, and noncontact sports completed the Sport Behavior Inventory (Conroy, Silva, Newcomer, Walker, &amp; Johnson, in press). Overall, the athletes did not consider aggression legitimate. A 3 (sport type) x 2 (gender) ANOVA (alpha = .05) with post hoc comparisons showed that athletes in contact and noncontact sports scored lower than those in collision sports. Females scored lower than males. A significant interaction revealed a greater gender difference in noncontact sports than in collision or contact. In noncontact sports, gender role expectations could be the dominant influence for males, while role expectations and in-sport behavioral norms influence females. In collision and contact sports, in-sport norms could reinforce role expectations for males but encourage females to demonstrate behaviors inconsistent with traditional expectations.

Self-Esteem among Intercollegiate Athletes: The Role of Achievement Goals and Competitive Orientation

The conceptualization of competitiveness has been limited in sport research to its motivational basis with few studies investigating its relation to athlete self-perceptions. A sample of 186 intercollegiate athletes was used to determine the multivariate relationship between task and ego goal orientations, hypercompetitive and personal development competitive attitudes, and the self-esteem components of self-regard, social confidence, and physical abilities. Canonical correlation analyses revealed that the self-regard and physical ability aspects of athletes' self-esteem were related to task orientation, personal development competitiveness, and not hypercompetitiveness. Conversely, low levels of these self-esteem indices were associated with ego orientation and hypercompetitiveness. Results are discussed both in terms of conceptual differences between motivational goals and competitiveness as well as methodological issues regarding the assessment of competitive attitudes among athletes.

The Carolina Sport Confidence Inventory

Expectancy and efficacy theories provide the foundation for the development of a measure of sport confidence. The Carolina Sport Confidence Inventory (CSCI) was conceptualized as a three-factor model represented by dispositional optimism, perceived competence, and perceived control. Two independent studies supported a two factor (dispositional optimism and perceived competence) 13- item model for the CSCI. The first study utilized exploratory factor analytic techniques, concurrent validity, social desirability assessment, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability to establish the psychometric properties of the CSCI. Study II employed confirmatory factor analytic techniques with a sample of 123 intercollegiate varsity athletes along with measures of convergent validity to provide further support for the two factor model and the psychometric properties of the instrument.

EVALUATION OF EATING PATTERNS AND SELECTED TRAINING INDICES OF INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETES

Proper nutrition is an essential part of an athlete improving performance. Therefore, the purpose on this preliminary investigation was to survey intercollegiate athletes on nutritional patterns and selected indices of training. Two hundred and eighty nine athletes 19.6 +/− 1.45 yrs (males 58/%, females 42/%) representing 17 athletic teams from one university completed the surveys. All surveys were given to each athlete during pre season physical screenings. Eighty-seven percent of the athletes rated their current level of performance to be adequate or above average. In addition, collegiate athletes on average felt that eating and performance was somewhat related (7.5 on a scale of 1–10). However, athletes tended to agree with the statement that their meals were more nutritious on week-days compared to weekends (6.9 on a scale of 1–10). In support of this, athletes reported on weekends to consume more junk food (47.9/%) and alcoholic beverages (79.2/%) than on weekdays. The female athletes (84/%) reported consuming more alcoholic beverage compared to the males (75/%) on weekends. However, males (50/%) reported to eat more junk food on the weekends then females (44/%). Fifty-five percent of the athletes are currently not taking a multi-vitamin. In addition, only 30% of athletes practice grazing (5+ meals per day) while 10.7/% eat two or less meals per day. Fifty-three percent of the collegiate athletes had reported a daily consumption of water equal to or less than 5 cups (60/% for females and 47/% for males). In addition to practice, 68.5/% of the athletes reported additional physical training during the season. The athletes that did additional practices, worked out at an average of 5.8+/−3.51 hours each week. Out of these athletes, the males' (6.17+/−3.66) did more additional hours of practices then the females (4.99+/− 3.03). When asked to rank the reasons additional work outs were accomplished, the athletes ranked their first choice to be improve performance (60/%) and their second choice to control weight (34/%). While these athletes considered nutrition to be somewhat related to performance, the nutrition habits of these athletes were less than adequate.

Current Activity Patterns of Women Intercollegiate Athletes of the Late 1960’s and 1970’s

The purpose of this study was to describe (1) the current physical activity (PA) levels of women who were among the earliest competitors in organized intercollegiate sports during the late 1960s and 1970s. Activity was determined using the Godin Leisure Time Questionnaire. Of the 103 subjects, 45% reported participation in strenuous activity (MET level 9), and 41% reported participation in moderate activity (MET level 5) more than 3 times per week. The majority of women often (50%) or sometimes (38%) participated in activity long enough to work up a sweat. Only 12 % reported never engaging in activity long enough to work up a sweat. Most women (66%) currently participate in physical activity to gain health or fitness or for recreation. A much smaller percentage (13%) still enjoys competition. Most women (60%) performed these activities alone while only 3% participated in group activities. Most (73%) indicated that the opportunity to participate in their college sport does not currently exist, while 27% indicated that they still participate. Reasons for not participating included no program available (27%), musculo-skeltal problems (15%), no desire (6%) and that their college sport was too vigorous (3%). The most common activities in which women currently participate are golf, running, jogging and walking and tennis. A large majority (97%) indicated previous intercollegiate participation had very positively influenced their current participation in physical activity.Unlike the majority of their peers, this population of women who competed in the early intercollegiate athletics has tended to stay active in spite of decreasing opportunities to engage in team and other physical activities after college and as they age.

Confidence Restoration Following Athletic Injury

The impact of goal orientations, perceptions of social support, and sources of rehabilitation confidence on the process of confidence restoration from athletic injury was examined among 40 injured intercollegiate athletes (ages 18 to 22 years). Athletes completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ; Duda &amp; Nicholls, 1992), the Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ; Duda, Smart, &amp; Tappe, 1989), and modified versions of the Sources of Sport Confidence Questionnaire (M-SSCQ; Vealey, Hayashi, Garner-Holman, &amp; Giacobbi, 1998) and the State Sport Confidence Inventory (M-SSCI; Vealey, 1986) within the first two days of their rehabilitation program. The SSQ, M-SSCQ, and M-SSCI were completed during the midpoint of the rehabilitation and the day before returning to practice/competition. Results indicated that the tendency to emphasize task-involved goals in sport significantly predicted the selection of mastery and more self-referenced sources of confidence in rehabilitation. Athletes who perceived more social support specific to injury rehabilitation at the beginning of the rehabilitation program were more likely to rely on performance sources to build confidence.

Effects of velocity on upper to lower extremity muscular work and power output ratios of intercollegiate athletes.

OBJECTIVES: Peak torque expresses a point output which may, but does not always, correlate well with full range output measures such as work or power, particularly in a rehabilitating muscle....

Four-Year Changes in College Athletes' Ethical Value Choices in Sports Situations

Positive values for fairness in competition are supposed to undergird the behavior of athletes engaged in sport. Whether athletes' values actually develop over 4 years in a college that emphasizes character development is the focus of this study. Athletes' (N = 631) use of deontological ethics (Hahm, Beller & Stoll, 1989) in 21 sports value dilemmas were evaluated. At entrance, as well as near graduation, intercollegiate athletes' value scores were lower than intramural athletes' scores. Both groups' scores declined while they were in college. Individual-sport athletes had higher scores than team-sport athletes but manifested a greater decline over 4 years. The findings are consistent with other studies that show decreases in “sportsmanship orientation” and an increase in “professional” attitudes associated with participation in sport.

Distancing oneself from a poor season: Divestment of athletic identity

Athletes can experience loss in the form of chronic competitive failure, deselection, injury, and sport career termination. Reactions to these losses may affect and be affected by athletes' self-identity. Although the self has generally been conceptualized as stable in sport-related research, there are compelling theoretical and empirical reasons to expect that aspects of the self may vary across sport situations. In this investigation, two studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that sport participants would reduce their self-identification with the athlete role in response to the personal loss resulting from a poor competitive season. Male intercollegiate athletes completed preseason and late season assessments of athletic identity in both Study 1 and Study 2. As predicted, participants who were not satisfied with their performances during the season tended to decrease their athletic identity to a greater extent than participants who were satisfied with their performances during the season. Taken together, the findings of Studies 1 and 2 provide converging evidence in support of the malleability of sport-specific self-identity in responses to loss.

Health Risk Taking and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Risk in Collegiate Female Athletes

Risky health behaviors of female intercollegiate varsity athletes and their nonathlete peers were compared. Five hundred seventy-one female university students (109 athletes and 462 nonathlete peers) at two midwestern universities completed a self-administered, anonymous questionnaire during team meetings or class sessions. Each athlete was matched with two nonathlete controls of similar age, ethnicity, and class year to test for dichotomous outcome variables. A human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) risk scale was developed to identify factors associated with increased HIV risk for all of the female participants. Measures of alcohol and other drug use were associated with HIV risk. The athletes were found to engage in significantly fewer risk-taking behaviors than the nonathletes and to be at less risk for HIV. High levels of risk behaviors generally indicated the need for increased efforts to change risky behaviors in all college women.

WOMEN, DRUG USE, AND DRUG TESTING

The drug-related attitudes and behaviors of female intercollegiate athletes and their views on drug testing were assessed and contrasted with those of male athletes at the same university. Results indicated that college women athletes' attitudes toward drug use and drug testing correspond to conventional gender-related expectations about drug use among the general population, and so do the attitudes of male college athletes. Women student athletes preferred wine and men preferred beer; more women used coffee and over-the-counter drugs, and more men used tobacco or smokeless tobacco. Marijuana was the most commonly used illegal substance among college athletes. Intercollegiate women held more positive attitudes regarding drug testing than men and felt stronger about the importance of testing for all classes of drugs. Only a minority of male and female college athletes felt that athletes should be tested for the use of alcohol, tobacco, and prescription drugs.

Analysis of Sport Orientation of Female Collegiate Athletes

Scores on three subscales of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire were analyzed to assess whether competitive orientation of 40 female athletes differed from that of 36 nonparticipants and whether competitive orientation differentiated among athletes participating in different sports. Intercollegiate women athletes from three sports (basketball = 12; Softball = 16; and volleyball = 12) and a control group of 36 women who did not participate in athletics were respondents. Scores on Win and Competition significantly discriminated among groups. Scores of the control group were significantly lower than those of each group of athletes. No other comparisons were significant.

The Relationship between Competitive Anxiety and Self-Presentational Concerns

The purpose of this investigation was to examine Leary’s (1992) contention that competitive anxiety revolves around the self-presentational implications of sport competition. Intercollegiate athletes (N = 199) completed inventories assessing competitive trait anxiety and self-presentational concerns. Principal-axis factor analysis with direct oblim rotation of self-presentational concern items produced an interpretable four-factor solution accounting for 62% of the variance. These factors were interpreted to represent self-presentational concerns about Performance/Composure Inadequacies, Appearing Fatigued/Lacking Energy, Physical Appearance, and Appearing Athletically Untalented. Correlational and structural equation modeling analyses revealed that self-presentational concern was more strongly associated with cognitive rather than somatic anxiety, and that substantial portions of variance in competitive anxiety could be accounted for by self-presentational concern variables. The results of this investigation provide support for Leary’s (1992) assertion regarding the relationship between self-presentational concern and competitive anxiety.