Intercollegiate Athletes Research Articles

Student Athlete Retention and Financial Aid

This study assesses the effectiveness of financial aid combinations of the Oklahoma Higher Education Learning Access Program (OHLAP) and the two most popular federal financial aid programs, Pell grants and Stafford loans, in predicting persistence among intercollegiate athletes at postsecondary institutions in Oklahoma, with special attention to minority groups. The evidence in this study suggests that various financial aid packages impact student athlete retention differently by class level, income, and race/ethnicity. Whereas White student athletes benefit the most from financial aid packages, the likelihood of increased retention for low-income minority student athletes increases with financial aid in the form of grants. In addition, the OHLAP program is very effective in promoting retention among student athletes in Oklahoma when combined with Pell grants or Stafford loans. In sum, based on the results studying student athletes in Oklahoma, it is clear that athlete student persistence is significantly influenced by financial aid on top of athletic scholarships.

The Razor Curl: A Functional Approach to Hamstring Training

This study examined the effectiveness of a functional hamstring training exercise, the razor curl on conditioning the hamstring and gluteal musculature. Eight healthy, female intercollegiate athletes participated (mean age 20.8 +/- 3.9 years; mean height, 177.8 +/- 10.9 cm; mean weight, 67.3 +/- 9.9 kg). Electromyographic (EMG) data were collected on the following muscles: medial hamstring (semimembranosus and semitendinosus), biceps femoris, gluteus medius, and gluteus maximus while participants performed the razor curl. The functional positioning of the razor curl showed maximum activation of the medial hamstring muscle group of up to 220% of its maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), just as the biceps femoris displayed a max of up to 140% of MVIC. Maximum activation of the hamstrings and gluteals were observed from the point of 90 degrees of hip flexion to the point of knee flexion beyond 90 degrees . These data reveal that the razor curl does indeed activate the hamstring musculature and based on the mechanics of the razor curl one can train in a more functional position. It is known biomechanically that flexing the hip allows for a lengthening contraction of the hamstring at the hip, thus allowing for a more optimal forceful contraction of the hamstrings at the knee. In conclusion, the razor curl hamstring exercise is designed to increase hamstring contractibility by placing the hip into flexion. By including strengthening the hamstring in a functional position one accentuates other land based training methods such as jump landing training in efforts to ultimately decrease the susceptibility of anterior cruciate ligament injury.

A brief live interactive normative group intervention using wireless keypads to reduce drinking and alcohol consequences in college student athletes

Misperceptions of how members of one's social group think and act influence behaviour. The current study was designed to extend the research of group-specific normative feedback interventions among salient campus groups with heightened risk. Although not a randomised controlled trial, this research used normative feedback that was obtained using wireless keypad technology during a live session, within sex-specific student athlete groups to extend the proof of concept of using this brief interactive intervention. Participants included 660 intercollegiate athletes from all varsity athletic teams at two private, mid-size universities. Intervention data were gathered in vivo using computerised handheld keypads into which group members entered in personal responses to a series of alcohol-related questions. These questions assessed perceptions of normative group behaviour and attitudes as well as actual individual behaviour and attitudes. These data were then immediately presented back in graphical form to illustrate discrepancies between perceived and actual group norms. Results revealed that at 1 month post-intervention, perceived group norms, behaviour, attitudes and consequences reduced compared with baseline. These reductions were maintained at 2 month follow up. Latent growth modelling suggested that the reductions in perceived norms and attitudes were associated with reductions in individual drinking behaviour and negative consequences. These results are among the first to suggest the effectiveness of a novel, group-based normative alcohol intervention among student athletes. Limitations of the design preclude strong inferences about efficacy; however, the findings support further trialling of such information technology in alcohol treatment research.

Community Responsibility for Preventing Sexual Violence: A Pilot Study with Campus Greeks and Intercollegiate Athletes

SUMMARY Previous research has noted higher incidences of sexual violence on campus among members of campus Greeks and athletes and the need to do prevention programs with them. This article presents the results of an exploratory pilot study of a sexual violence prevention program with members of one fraternity, sorority, men's and women's intercollegiate athletic team. The program, experimentally evaluated and found to be effective with a general sample of undergraduates, was used to determine its efficacy specifically with Greeks and athletes. The model on which the program is based calls for prevention efforts that take a wider community approach rather than simply targeting individuals as potential perpetrators or victims. Results from repeated-measures analysis of variance indicate that the program worked overall. Future directions are discussed.

Reducing Heavy Drinking in Intercollegiate Athletes: Evaluation of a Web-Based Personalized Feedback Program

This study evaluated the efficacy of a Web-based personalized feedback program aimed at reducing drinking in freshman intercollegiate athletes. The program was offered through the Athletic Department freshman seminar at a NCAA Division I university. Seminar sections were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: Web-based personalized feedback (WPF) or Web-based education (WE). Assessment measures were completed at baseline, 6 weeks, and 3 months. Athletes were classified as high-risk or low-risk drinkers based on baseline reports of binge drinking. Results indicated for high-risk athletes, students in the WPF condition reported significantly greater reductions in drinking and changes in beliefs about peer drinking than those in the WE condition. In addition, reductions in drinking were related to reductions in peer drinking estimates for athletes in the WPF group. Findings provide initial support for the efficacy of Web-based personalized feedback for reducing the quantity and frequency of heavy drinking in freshman intercollegiate athletes.

Effects Of Sports Vision Training On Visual Skill Performance

The primary sensory input in sport is through the vision system. Recently, many elite athletes have begun sports vision training in an effort to enhance visual skills to ultimately improve athletic performance. There is, however, limited research examining the effect of vision training on visual and athletic performance. PURPOSE: To evaluate the effects of sports vision training on visual performance. METHODS: This study is a retrospective effort to evaluate existing sports vision data from a ten year period collected as part of the United State Air Force Academy's sports vision training program. 1,118 athletes (905 males, 213 females), all intercollegiate athletes of various sports that rely heavily on visual inputs, participated in a sports vision training program. To track athlete progress, skills such as eye movements, accommodation, vergence and eye-hand speed and accuracy of movements were tested before and after a series of training sessions. Athletes trained for approximately 20 minutes per session, 2 to 3 times per week, for up to four years. RESULTS: Performance on each visual skill improved significantly (p < 0.05) as a result of the training. The increase in visual performance occurred in a step wise fashion meaning the more the athlete trained, the better their performance. After 31 + training sessions, eye movement speed increased up to 24%, vergence up to 55%, accommodation up to 36%, and eye-hand speed and accuracy up to 150%. CONCLUSION: Sports vision training can improve an athlete's visual system skills. The next step in this line of research is to evaluate the effects of visual skill improvement on actual athletic performance. Disclaimer: The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not reflect the official policy or position of the United States Air Force, the Department of Defense, or the US Government.

Intercollegiate Female Coaches' Use of Verbally Aggressive Communication Toward African American Female Athletes

Despite the high proportionality of African American female athletes in intercollegiate sports, the combination of a primarily White sports media and White coaching personnel creates a fertile environment for the reproduction of racialized and gendered stereotypes. This study sought to examine this phenomenon through the lens of verbally aggressive communication between female intercollegiate coaches and African American female athletes. This study found that verbally aggressive communication is generally perceived negatively by African American female athletes and suggests that female intercollegiate coaches, like their male counterparts, often believe they can arbitrarily use the power granted to them within the sport organization to perpetuate racial and gender stereotypes.

Normative SF-36 Values in Competing NCAA Intercollegiate Athletes Differ from Values in the General Population

The Short Form-36 (SF-36) is a valid and reliable generic indicator of health status. The scoring distributions for the general and specific populations have been extensively reported in the literature and vary according to age, gender, the type and severity of a medical condition, and socioeconomic status. However, normative data pertaining specifically to athletic populations are limited. The purpose of the present study was to establish SF-36 reference norms for athletes cleared for participation in intercollegiate sports. Six hundred and ninety-six United States National Collegiate Athletic Association Division-I and II student athletes who had been cleared for participation in intercollegiate sports completed the self-administered form of the SF-36 at the time of pre-participation evaluations. Demographic information and history of injuries were also recorded. Compared with the general population and an age-matched sample of the general population, the athletes scored significantly higher in all health domains (p < 0.01) except for bodily pain (p = 0.05). Among the athletes, men scored significantly higher than women in the general health domain only (p = 0.0006). Athletes with no reported history of injury scored significantly higher than those with previous injuries in all health domains, except in role limitations due to emotional problems. Intercollegiate athletes cleared for participation reported significantly higher SF-36 scores in comparison with a similarly aged sample of the general population. These normative values are important in the evaluation of health status of intercollegiate athletes before and after intervention.

Exploring Relations of Wellness and Athletic Coping Skills of Collegiate Athletes: Implications for Sport Performance

In exploring the relationship between wellness and athletic performance, this study assessed the link between wellness, as defined by a high score on five wellness dimensions of emotional, social, spiritual, intellectual, and physical well-being, with psychological variables thought to be related to athletic performance as measured by athletes' self-report of specific athletic coping skills. 142 collegiate athletes completed a survey composed of the Optimal Living Profile to measure wellness dimensions and the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory to measure specific psychological variables. Analysis indicated that athletes scoring higher on the dimensions of wellness also scored significantly higher on athletic coping skills. Specifically, male athletes who scored higher on wellness also reported higher scores on coachability, concentration, goal setting/mental preparation, and peaking under pressure, and female athletes who scored higher on wellness also reported higher scores in coping with adversity, coachability, concentration, goal setting/mental preparation, and freedom from worry. Various dimensions of wellness seem related to better performance by involving the athletic coping skills of intercollegiate athletes. Implications for coaches and sport psychologists are also discussed.

Aggressive Surgical Treatment and Early Return to Sports in Athletes with Grade III Syndesmosis Sprains

Background Grade III syndesmosis sprains are usually treated with internal fixation. Limited information is available on early weightbearing and early return to activity after operative treatment for grade III syndesmosis sprains. Hypothesis Treatment of grade III syndesmosis sprains in intercollegiate athletes with internal fixation, early range of motion, and early weightbearing can lead to rapid return to sport with minimal complications and no ankle problems in midterm follow-up. Study Design Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods We evaluated a consecutive series of intercollegiate athletes treated operatively with 4.5-mm cortical screw fixation for grade III syndesmosis sprains. At 1 week after surgery, patients were allowed to begin range of motion exercises, progressive weightbearing, and gradually return to full activity as tolerated. Outcome measures included time to return to full activity and, at final follow-up, the Sports Ankle Rating System scores. Results Six male intercollegiate college athletes met the inclusion criteria for this study. The average time for return to full activity was 41 days (range, 32-48 days). There were no intraoperative complications or complications when resuming in-season sport activities with the screw in place. One screw broke during removal. At an average follow-up of 34.3 months, using the Sports Ankle Rating System, the average clinical rating score was 96.2, the average quality-of-life measure was 96.7, and the average single assessment numeric evaluation was 95.3. Radiographs at final follow-up showed no mortise widening or lateral talar subluxation. Two patients had mild degenerative changes on lateral radiographs with anterior tibial osteophytes. Conclusions In selective cases, athletes can return to full activity as early as 6 weeks after internal fixation of grade III syndesmosis sprains.

Institutional Liability for the Sexual Crimes of Student-Athletes: A Review of Case Law and Policy Recommendations

<p>Sport in American culture has become a massive economic and entertainment venture and, with that, professional and intercollegiate athletes have been elevated to semi-celebrities and role models. This designation perhaps is wrongly so, as news of athletes' mishaps are a featured part of the daily news. In the collegiate setting, athletes' misconduct can become a serious problem: Not only does it besmirch the image of the institution and its teams, but in certain instances can cause the institution, athletic association, and members of the administration and athletic staff to be the targets of litigation.</p><p>This paper seeks to explore whether or not the growing number of criminal acts committed by intercollegiate athletes is cause for concern for increased institutional liability. Does recruiting or retaining such athletes expose the institution to lawsuit, particularly if the institution was aware of the student's criminal past? Or should the educative purpose of college offer a redeeming "second chance" to these promising young men and women?</p>

The incidence and severity of dental trauma in intercollegiate athletes

The use of protective devices such as mouthguards during participation in contact sports may be effective in reducing the incidence or severity of dental injuries. Dental injuries reported to the athletic department at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, were recorded from 1996 through 2005. The authors classified each injury and determined the severity of the injury. Severity was defined in relation to the treatment required and the prognosis of the teeth and supporting tissues involved. Fifty-one traumatic dental injuries were reported. Basketball was the sport with the highest injury rate; it had an incidence rate (IR) of 10.6 injuries per 100 athlete-seasons among men, and an IR of 5.0 injuries per 100 athlete-seasons among women. The IR for men's basketball players was five times higher than that for football players for whom mouthguard use is mandatory. Given the relatively high incidence of dental injury in basketball and the potential of mouthguard use to reduce the incidence and severity of the trauma, mandatory use of mouthguards among collegiate basketball players should be considered. Dental professionals have a responsibility to educate patients and the public about the importance of using mouth-guard protection in contact sports.

Body image satisfaction among intercollegiate female athletes using a scale of muscularity.

In recent years it has become more apparent that disordered eating and unrealistic concepts of attractiveness have created a major problem in women, especially young adult female athletes. The present study administed a variety of body image, dieting, and eating-oriented questionnaires to 61 female intercollegiate athletes. Track/Field, Soccer, Basketball, Cheerleading, Softball, and Volleyball were represented. Questionnaires included a pictorial body image scale that varied in terms of muscularity, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI), the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT), the Eating Habits Questionnaire (EHQ), and a food neophobic/neophilic scale (FNS). Female athletes in all sports chose an “IDEAL” figure which was less muscular than their “CURRENT” figure. Soccer players had the lowest body dissatisfaction and volleyball players had the highest. Among the EDI sub-scales, there was a significant difference between Track and Field and Basketball on the scale of Bulimina, with Track and Field being highest and Basketball being lowest. There was a trend in Perfectionism between Cheerleading being the lowest and Track and Field being the highest. In addition, there was a significant correlation between 6 of the 8 EDI sub-scales and body dissatisfaction. Drive for thinness, interceptive awareness, bulimia, body dissatisfaction, ineffectiveness, and maturity fears were all correlated with levels of body dissatisfaction. These results further support the need for intervention and education concerning promoting realistic body expectations among female athletes.

The Relationship between Neurocognitive Function and Noncontact Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries

Background Biomechanical analyses suggest that the loss of neuromuscular control is associated with noncontact anterior cruciate ligament sprains; however, previous research has not explored the link between neurocognitive function and unintentional knee injuries. Purpose To determine if athletes who suffer a noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injury demonstrate decreased baseline neurocognitive performance when compared with matched controls. Study Design Case control study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods The baseline scores from a computerized neurocognitive test battery (ImPACT) were analyzed to compare verbal memory, visual memory, processing speed, and reaction time. Eighty intercollegiate athletes who, subsequent to testing, experienced noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injuries, were matched with 80 controls based on height, weight, age, gender, sport, position, and years of experience at the collegiate level. Results Statistical differences were found between the noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injury group and the matched controls on all 4 neurocognitive subtests. Noncontact anterior cruciate ligament—injured athletes demonstrated significantly slower reaction time (F1,158 = 9.66, P = .002) and processing speed (F1,158 = 12.04, P = .001) and performed worse on visual (F1,158 = 19.16, P = .000) and verbal memory (F 1,158 = 4.08, P = .045) composite scores when compared with controls. Conclusion Neurocognitive differences may be associated with the loss of neuromuscular control and coordination errors, predisposing certain intercollegiate athletes to noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injuries.

Social norms and alcohol consumption among intercollegiate athletes: The role of athlete and nonathlete reference groups

The relationship between perceived alcohol use among peers and personal alcohol use was assessed in a sample of collegiate athletes. Data were collected on 109 intercollegiate athletes during the competitive season and 119 athletes during the off-season at a large, state university in the Northeastern United States. Participants were asked to estimate the normative alcohol use of four reference groups (closest athlete friend, closest nonathlete friend, typical athlete, and typical nonathlete). Results of both in-season and off-season analyses indicated that athletes estimated that others consumed more drinks per week than they did, and perceptions of these social norms predicted personal use. Although the typical athlete norm emerged as the strongest predictor of personal alcohol use, the relative strength of the relationships between individual behavior and the athlete and nonathlete norms varied according to seasonal status. Results have implications for the content and timing of prevention and intervention programs aimed at reducing high-risk alcohol use among intercollegiate athletes.

The Prevalence of Shoulder Pathology among NCAA Division 1 Overhead Athletes

The occurrence of shoulder pathology among overhead athletes is well known and documented. However, the prevalence of specific shoulder injuries among the different overhead athletes is not known. The mechanisms of injury in most overhead sports are similar, but each sport has movements and stresses more commonly occurring. Practitioners could benefit from knowing the injuries inherent to each sport for the purposes of prevention. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence rates for shoulder pathologies among collegiate overhead athletes, and to investigate if differences in shoulder injury prevalence existed among the various overhead sports. METHODS: Data were collected from preseason medical examinations and from the medical records maintained throughout the collegiate careers of 307 NCAA Division I overhead athletes. Athletes who participated in intercollegiate baseball, softball, volleyball, tennis and swimming from 2000–2005 were included in this study. RESULTS: Shoulder injuries were documented in 30% of the intercollegiate overhead athletes during their athletic careers. Rotator cuff tendonitis and subacromial impingement were the most common shoulder pathologies for each individual sport and accounted for 23% and 29% of the total shoulder injuries respectively. As such, these pathologies had a statistically significant higher prevalence rate than any other injury (P=0.001, x2=63.0). Volleyball players had significantly more acromioclavicular sprains than the other athletes (P=0.001, x2=17.7). A total of 116 shoulder injuries were documented among 92 athletes complaining of shoulder related pain, indicating 1.3 injuries per injured athlete. CONCLUSIONS: Shoulder pathology is a common occurrence among overhead intercollegiate athletes, as shown in this study as well as previous research. Rotator cuff tendonitis and subacromial impingement were the most common shoulder injuries recorded among the subjects. The results of this study emphasize the need for increased utilization of prevention techniques to decrease the prevalence of shoulder injuries among overhead athletes, with particular measures targeting the prevention of subacromial impingement and rotator cuff tendonitis.

Impact of Transition from Sport: The Emotional Experience of Intercollegiate Athletes

This article explored themes related to the emotional experience of transition from sport often faced by the college athlete upon completion of his or her eligibility. Although issues related to intercollegiate athletics and students' transition out of sport have received increasing attention in the literature the emotional, and deeply personal aspects, of such transitions are less well understood. A review of literature concerning this topic was explored including three potential themes impacting the transition of intercollegiate athletes: athlete identity, issues of control, and feelings of loss related to change. In addition, a number of additional questions related to the topic as well as potential future lines of research were suggested.

Are Drinking Games Sports? College Athlete Participation in Drinking Games and Alcohol-Related Problems

Studies indicate greater heavy episodic drinking and related consequences for college student-athletes compared with nonathletes. Surprisingly, little research has examined college athletes' participation in drinking games, a context associated with excessive alcohol consumption and negative alcohol-related consequences in college students. We examined how drinking game participation contributes to alcohol consumption and alcohol-related consequences among college-level intramural and intercollegiate athletes compared with nonathletes in two independent samples. Study 1 consisted of 1,395 randomly selected students (61% women) at a West Coast college campus, including 335 students who reported intramural athletic participation. Study 2 consisted of 6,055 randomly selected college students (63% women) from three college campuses, including 1,439 intramural athletes and 317 intercollegiate athletes. Results of Study 1 indicated that intramural athletes consumed significantly more drinks per week, had significantly higher typical and peak blood alcohol concentration levels, and reported more negative consequences than nonathletes. Drinking game participation mediated the relationship between intramural athlete status and measures of consumption and consequences. Results of Study 2, including both intramural and intercollegiate athletes, were consistent with those of Study 1, revealing drinking game participation as a mediator of the relationships between athlete status and alcohol consumption and consequences. Drinking games represent contexts for college athletes to engage in heavy episodic drinking, and participation in drinking games mediates the relationship between alcohol consumption and negative consequences in athletes. Interventions targeted at college athletes should consider the impact of drinking game participation.

Inhalation of Ultrafine and Fine Particulate Matter Disrupts Systemic Vascular Function

This study investigated the effects of particulate matter (PM) with aerodynamic diameter 0.02–1 μm (noted as PM1) inhalation during exercise on conduit artery and microvascular function. Inhalation of internal combustion-derived PM is associated with cardiovascular mortality and morbidity. Direct action of PM on the vascular endothelium is likely, as a substantial fraction of ultrafine PM translocates from the alveoli to the circulatory system. Sixteen intercollegiate athletes performed 30 min of exercise while inhaling low or high PM1. Flow-mediated brachial artery dilation (FMD) using high-resolution ultrasonography with simultaneous measurements of forearm oxygen kinetics using near infrared spectrophotometry (NIRS) was done before and after exercise. Basal brachial artery vasoconstriction was found after high PM1 exercise (4.0%, 4.66 ± 0.609 to 4.47 ± 0.625 mm diameter; p = .0002), but not after low PM1 exercise (−0.3%, 4.66 ± 0.626 to 4.68 ± 0.613 mm diameter). FMD was impaired after high PM1 exercise (6.8 ± 3.58% for preexercise FMD and 0.30 ± 2.74% for postexercise FMD, p = .0001), but not after low PM1 exercise (6.6 ± 4.04% for preexercise FMD and 4.89 ± 4.42% for postexercise FMD). Reduction in forearm muscle reperfusion estimated by reoxygenation slope-to-baseline after 4 min cuff ischemia was observed for high PM1 exercise (55% vs. 3%, p = .0006); no difference was noted for low PM1 exercise. Brachial artery FMD was significantly correlated to muscle reoxygenation slope-to-baseline (r = .50, p = .005). Acute inhalation of high [PM1] typical of urban environments impairs both systemic conduit artery function and microcirculation. The observed decrease reoxygenation slope-to-baseline after cuff release is consistent with reduced blood flow in the muscle microvasculature.

Comparing Off-Season with In-Season Alcohol Consumption among Intercollegiate Athletes

Intercollegiate athletes have been identified as an at-risk group for heavy alcohol consumption. The purpose of the present study was to use a longitudinal design to assess for off-season versus in-season differences in alcohol consumption within a sample of intercollegiate athletes. Previous research has suggested that athletes drink less during their competitive seasons, but conclusions from this body of research have been tempered by methodological limitations in the previous studies. Results from 160 athletes competing at the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I level indicated that alcohol use and negative alcohol-related consequences decreased during the athletes' competitive seasons. These results are interpreted in terms of the theory of planned behavior and social norms theory. Implications for alcohol prevention programs among college athletes are also addressed.