Mass Transfer Intensification Research Articles

Система защиты воздушной среды участка сварочных работ с применением восстановительной вентиляции

The technology is considered related to the protection of the air environment of electric welding areas with the use of restorative ventilation and showering. With the help of it, polluted air is removed from the working area and the conditioned air is supplied instead for meeting the requirements of sanitary norms for the microclimate parameters of working premises and the content of harmful substances in them. The traditional technology of air purification from welding smoke has fundamental disadvantages, the main of which is the inability to clean the air from carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide impurities. To normalize the microclimate of working areas, the volumetric air conditioning is used, which requires enormous energy costs. At the same time, the distribution of supply air does not provide for the protection of the welder from intense thermal radiation. The system of harmful substances suction from the welding station limits the freedom of the welder action. Therefore, in some cases, he is forced to raise the suction funnel above his head, as a result of what the welding smoke enters the room. It is proposed to avoid the above shortcomings by improving the system of complex protection of the air environment, containing an exhaust panel, an apparatus for cleaning and heat-moisture treatment of air with its cooling and subsequent return to the welder working area. It is advisable to use an apparatus for wet air treatment made according to the type of a packed scrubber-absorber using water with active additives of permanganate and sodium bicarbonate dissolved in it, which contribute to the dissolution and retention of toxic gases of the welding smoke in water. To increase the efficiency of air purification in this apparatus, it is proposed to use a special irrigated nozzle made of porous plastic plates, in which artificial turbulence of the air flow is carried out, which ensures its intense heat and mass transfer and temperature reduction. The use of such a device allows to implement an energy-saving technology by reducing the performance of the supply units to the minimum required level of outdoor air supply.

Effect of combining multi-jet component with axial swirl blade on evaporation in a spouted bed

To improve the fluidization behavior and the heat and mass transfer process in a spouted bed, a multi-jet–axial-swirl-blade spouted bed (MJ-ASB SB) was developed. The water evaporation process of the MJ-ASB SB was simulated and compared with those of the conventional spouted bed (CSB) and an integral multi-jet spout-fluidized bed (IMJSFB). The simulation results showed that the MJ-ASB SB combined the staged spouting action of multi-jet with the swirling action of the axial swirl blade, which promoted particle turbulence in the annulus region and ensured effective particle mixing. The swirl number of the MJ-ASB SB ranged from 0.0816 to 2.7239 with enhanced vortex intensity, thus promoting momentum and heat transfer of gas and particles in the spouted bed. The MJ-ASB SB had a higher slip velocity than the other two bed types, which indicates that the combined internal structure could improve the fluidization state of the bed and intensify the movement and mixing of phases in the spouted bed. The three-phase temperature, water evaporation rate, and gas humidity of the MJ-ASB SB were higher than those of the CSB and IMJSFB, and water evaporation occurred in an enlarged region in the MJ-ASB SB. The mass transfer intensification factors I of the MJ-ASB SB (2.62) and IMJSFB (1.92) were 91% and 161% higher than that of the CSB (1), respectively, indicating that the combined internal structure of the MJ-ASB SB significantly contributed to the water evaporation process.

Numerical investigation of oxygen bubble condensation in subcooled quiescent liquid oxygen based on height function method

Bubble condensation is a fundamental issue in the direct contact condensation (DCC) process, which is extremely hard to predict due to the intense mass transfer and flow instability. Aiming at the cryogenic oxygen bubble evolution and pressure oscillation, a modified energy balance mass transfer model is adopted based on the height function method. The height function method is used to calculate the real-time interfacial curvature, modifying the mass transfer rate that emerged in CFD simulation. The modified model is validated to be convincing and accurate by a steam bubble condensation simulation. The results indicate that the cryogenic bubbles condense faster with a more intense mass transfer process, compared with the near-room-temperature mediums. The corresponding amplitude of pressure oscillation for the cryogenic mediums is approximately 3 ∼ 4 times as larger as that for near-room-temperature mediums. It is found that both the condensation rate and the frequency of pressure oscillation are repressed with the increase of bubble volume. That means that a big bubble condensation might produce a low-frequency pressure oscillation. In addition, both the condensation rate and the intensity of the pressure oscillation increase with the increase of subcooling. The average amplitude of pressure oscillation has a power function law with subcooling. These conclusions provide a theoretical basis for a deep understanding of the cryogenic DCC process.

ON PRESSURE WAVES IN SATURATED FRACTURED POROUS MEDIUM WITH DAMAGEABLE MATRIX

A double-porosity model of single-phase flow induced by depression in fractured porous medium with damageable matrix is proposed. The development of small-scale fracturing leads to an increase in the permeability of matrix blocks and the intensification of mass transfer between subsystems of the double-porosity medium. By analyzing the inequality of dissipation, the thermodynamically consistent governing relations and the equation for evolution of the damage parameter in the matrix are derived. For the obtained system of equations, an initial-boundary value problem is formulated and solved numerically that models coupled processes of fluid flow, fracture, and changes in the stress-strain state in a loaded half-space with double porosity, which was initially in equilibrium under abnormally high pore pressure. Development of the damaged zone accompanying the pressure wave is analyzed. Two types of damage zone development are shown to exist. Choice between these solutions depends on the parameters of the medium.

DEVELOPING OF A PORTABLE MICROWAVE CONVECTIVE DRYING PLANT FOR GRAIN STORED IN BULK

The data of the analysis of the application of electrophysical influences are presented and the choice of using a microwave field for the intensification of heat and mass transfer is justified; the results of a numerical experiment on the propagation of a microwave field and dissipated power in a dense grain layer at different material humidity when microwave energy is supplied through slit radiators combined with the duct of a ventilation installation. The development of combined grain drying modes in a dense stationary layer requires taking into account the maximum levels of permissible heating and the pattern of propagation of thermal fields during exposure. (Research purpose) The research purpose is developing the design of a portable ultra-high-frequency convective installation for drying grain stored in bulk. (Materials and methods) Presented a model of a portable installation for combined ultrahigh-frequency convective processing. A model of a waveguide-emitter was given for numerical simulation. (Results and discussion) A numerical experiment was conducted to determine the propagation of the microwave field in a layer of wheat of different humidity. (Conclusions) It was revealed that the results of modeling the distribution of the microwave field intensity in the grain mass can be used to develop modes of combined grain drying, taking into account the peculiarities of the propagation of thermal fields, power dissipation and the operation of field sources. It has been shown that as an intensifying factor of heat and mass transfer processes for a stationary grain layer, it is advisable to use a microwave field in a pulsed mode of operation combined with active ventilation. It was established that in order to influence the grain layer, it is necessary to use a microwave field with a frequency of 915 Megahertz, however, the absence of commercially available microwave field sources with a power of 200-1000 watts with air cooling limits this possibility. It was determined that the use of sources operating at a frequency of 2.45 Gigahertz as a microwave field is possible taking into account the development of pulsed modes of microwave field supply. It was stated that the use of an air duct with slit radiators allows for the supply of microwave energy to the required level in the height of the treated layer.

Deep eutectic solvents with low viscosity for automation of liquid-phase microextraction based on lab-in-syringe system: Separation of Sudan dyes

In the work limitations of deep eutectic solvents in the flow-based analysis are discussed. Deep eutectic solvents based on terpenes and fatty acids with low viscosity were studied as extraction solvents for liquid-liquid microextraction into a lab-in-syringe system for the first time. As a result an automated deep eutectic solvent-based microextraction approach was proposed. The procedure involved aspiration of deep eutectic solvent (based on terpene and fatty acid) and aqueous sample solution followed by phases mixing by a magnetic stirrer inside a syringe of flow system. After phase separation the extract phase was transferred from the syringe into a vial followed by analysis by a high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. The determination of Sudan I, Sudan II and Sudan III in chili-based sauces was considered as an analytical task. The mass-transfer intensification performed by the magnetic stirring inside the syringe allowed to perform fast (2 min) and efficient (extraction recoveries 87–95%) extraction. The limits of detection, calculated from a blank test based on 3σ, were from 0.003 to 0.005 mg kg−1, RSD was <9%. The microextraction procedure did not involve the use of hazardous organic solvents, only 100 μL of natural deep eutectic solvent was required for dyes preconcentration.

Modeling of mass transfer coefficient using plug, axial dispersion and forward mixing models for extraction of uranium from uranyl nitrate solution by TBP/Kerosene in a horizontal-vertical pulsed sieve-plate extraction column

The behavior of hydrodynamic parameters and mass transfer of an L-shaped pulsed sieve-plate extraction column (LPSPC) in the process of extracting uranium from uranyl nitrate solution by (30% (v/v)) tri-butyl phosphate (TBP)-Kerosene was investigated. The overall volumetric coefficient of mass transfer was subjected to sensitivity analysis by changing the operating parameters such as pulsation intensity and the volumetric flow rate of dispersed and continuous phases. Experimental observations showed that the pulsation intensity had the most significant impact on the behavior of the studied parameters so that its increase led to an increase in the intensity of mass transfer while reducing the droplet size and dispersed phase holdup (DPH) to 55 and 47%, respectively. The mass transfer coefficient was determined by plug flow model (PFM), axial dispersion model (ADM), and forward mixing model (FMM). The absolute average relative error (AARE) of the prediction of the concentration distribution of the transferred component along the length of the column for ADM and FMM was found to be less than 10%, while for PFM, it was less than 30%.

IMPROVEMENT OF CONTACT DEVICES OF THE BUBBLING TRAY

The results of a study of hydrodynamics and mass transfer on bubbling-type trays with valve, valve-vortex and vortex contact devices are presented. By means of experimental studies and numerical modeling, the velocity fields of liquid and gas, as well as the structure of the gas-liquid layer on the tray are determined. The dependence of the relative amplitude of fluctuations in the level of the gas-liquid layer on the tray by the gas flow rate when placing various types of contact devices on it is obtained. The average surface diameter of gas bubbles is determined and the mechanism of their accumulation in the liquid on the tray is proposed. The relationship between the velocity of liquid circulation on the plate and the size of gas bubbles entrained by the circulation flow has been confirmed. The pressure drop of the investigated contact devices was measured and the value of the hydraulic resistance coefficient was determined. Experimental data on the intensity of mass transfer and efficiency on tray are presented. Specific fluid flow rates have been established to ensure high efficiency.It is shown that the most efficient, liquid- and gas-carrying capacity is possessed by trays with vortex cantate devices having a low amplitude of oscillation of the gas-liquid layer and a large interfacial surface. This is due to an increase in the energy dissipation of gas jets in the liquid on the tray, the uniform distribution of gas bubbles and the presence of rotational motion of the gas-liquid layer.

Study on heat and mass transfer distance of water-film evaporation in limited space using dual-wavelength digital holographic interference

To study the heat and mass transfer between evaporating water film and air in limited space, the temperature and humidity distributions of air near the flowing water film were measured using dual-wavelength digital holographic interference (DHI). The holograms were recorded by CMOS with two different wavelengths of 532 nm and 671 nm. We derived the relationships between the phase changes reconstructed from the holograms and the air temperature and humidity changes based on the Edlen formulas. A water film evaporation (WFE) model was built to generate steady water film and demonstrate the heat and mass transfer in air countercurrent to the water film, which flows down on the copper plate. The model has two symmetrical tunnels isolated by a copper plate in the middle, allowing to compare the cases of heat and mass transfer with and without evaporation. The measurement precision is checked by comparing the reconstructed results with the sensor measured values and by calculations of heat balance and dimensionless Nusselt and Sherwood numbers. Based on the measurement results, the concept of feature transfer distance (FTD), is proposed, which characterizes the intensity of heat and mass transfer. By analyzing FTD, the main influencing factors of heat and mass transfer were obtained.

Mass transfer intensification and mechanism analysis of gas–liquid two-phase flow in the microchannel embedding triangular obstacles

An effective mass transfer intensification method was proposed by embedding different triangular obstacles to improve the gas–liquid mass transfer efficiency in microchannel. The influences of triangle obstacles configuration, obstacle interval and flow rate on the volumetric mass transfer coefficient, pressure drop and energy consumption were investigated experimentally. The enhancement factor was used to quantify the mass transfer enhancement effect of triangle obstacles. It was found that the isosceles or equilateral triangle obstacles are superior to the rectangular obstacles. The maximum enhancement factor of equilateral triangle obstacles was 2.35. Considering comprehensively mass transfer enhancement and energy consumption, the isosceles triangle obstacle showed the best performance, its maximum enhancement factor was 2.1, while the maximum pressure drop increased only 0.41 kPa (22%) compared to the microchannel without obstacles. Furthermore, a micro-particle image velocimetry (micro-PIV) was utilized to observe the flow field distribution and evolution, in order to understand and analyze the enhancement mechanism. The micro-PIV measurement indicated that the obstacle structure could induce the formation of vortex, which promotes convective mass transfer and thins the flow boundary layer, accordingly, the gas–liquid mass transfer efficiency is remarkably improved. This study can provide theoretical guidance and support for the design and optimization of microchannel with triangular obstacles.

Numerical simulation of high-temperature, high-pressure, and high-speed propellant gas flow eroding barrel material

The lifespan of an artillery piece highly depends on the erosion of the barrel caused by high-temperature, high-pressure, and high-speed gas flow scouring. The intense mass and heat transfer between the gas and barrel are confirmed as important factors of barrel erosion. Based on this phenomenon, a sectional thermochemical melting model of erosion is established. The erosion of the barrel during the internal ballistic process is computed with a numerical simulation method. The results reveal that the chamber throat is the most severe erosion zone, and corners are more severely eroded than nearby locations, such as the beginning of the rifling. The barrel&apos;s erosion is relatively serious around the maximum-pressure position (the axial location of the projectile when the gas reaches maximum pressure). Furthermore, because erosion is temperature sensitive, erosion rises and range widens gradually each shot under the initial temperature of the inner surface increasing in continuous shooting. The numerical simulation contributes to the prediction of artillery lifespan and other associated problems by providing a method for erosion by gas flow scouring.

INFLUENCE OF SPACE CHARGE BREAKDOWN ON THE PERFORMANCE OF ELECTROMEMBRANE SYSTEMS

It is known that the existing methods of using electromembrane systems (EMS) do not allow the most efficient water treatment and water treatment at overlimiting current modes, which is why there is a need to determine the operating parameters of electrodialysis plants to prevent complex destructive effects, it is essential limiting mass transfer, and reducing the efficiency of EMS. In addition, in practice, a contradiction is found in practice - an increase in the potential jump in the existing EMS does not provide an intensification of the transfer of salt ions under overlimiting current modes. The article is devoted to the study of the influence of one of the destructive phenomena - the breakdown of the space charge on the performance of electromembrane systems in highly diluted salt solutions. The aim of this work is a theoretical assessment of the effect of space charge breakdown on the transport of salt ions in electromembrane systems. A mathematical model based on the Nernst-Planck and Poisson equations has been developed. The process of electrodialysis desalination of a NaCl solution located in a flow chamber between an anion exchange membrane (AEM) and a cation exchange membrane (CEM) is considered. The solution flow is directed from bottom to top. Numerical modeling of the effect of space charge breakdown on EMS performance in highly dilute salt solutions has been carried out. The new mathematical model and software have been developed for numerical simulation of the effect of space charge breakdown on EMS performance in highly dilute salt solutions. In this work, using a 2D mathematical model and the formula for the current-voltage characteristic of the desalination channel, the effect of space charge breakdown on the transfer of salt ions in electromembrane systems at various values of the potential jump was determined for the first time. The ranges of currents are determined, which correspond to a high and slight increase in the performance of electromembrane systems, as well as a range of currents in which there is no increase. The obtained results can be used to determine the optimal value of the potential jump according to the criterion of maximum productivity. The results obtained can be applied to the design of industrial EMC to intensify mass transfer and increase productivity.

CO2 chemical absorption into AMP aqueous solution and mass transfer intensification in cascade sudden expansion microchannels

Carbon dioxide chemical absorption into 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP) aqueous solution and mass transfer enhancement in cascade sudden expansion microchannels were investigated by a high-speed digital camera. The influences of the flow rates of gas and liquid phases, the sudden expansion units and the concentration of AMP on the gas-liquid two-phase flow and mass transfer performance are studied systematically. Results showed that the increase of sudden expansion unit is conductive to increase liquid side volumetric mass transfer coefficient and enhancement factor. The maximal enhancement factor could reach to 1.33, and the maximally effective mass transfer efficiency could reach 1.6 under taking the energy consumption into account. The gas phase flow rate has slight effect on mass transfer enhancement factor E, while E decreases with increasing liquid phase flow rate. With the increase of AMP concentration, the volumetric mass transfer coefficient increases, but the enhancement factor decreases. A new correlation with good prediction performance was proposed for the volumetric mass transfer coefficient. Furthermore, the energy consumption and effective mass transfer efficiency were assessed.

Convective and evaporative heat transfer coefficients during drying of ivy gourd under natural and forced convection solar dryer.

In the present work, a study on convective heat, mass transfer coefficients and evaporative heat transfer coefficient of the thin layer drying process of ivy gourd is performed. The experiment was conducted in three drying modes such as natural, forced convection solar dryer and open sun drying. The hourly data for the rate of moisture removal, sample temperature, relative humidity inside and outside the solar and ambient air temperature for complete drying have been recorded. The drying air temperature varied from 55, 65, 70 and 75°C, and the air velocity was 1, 1.5 and 2m/s. All the drying experiments had shown a falling rate period. The data obtained from experimentation have been used to evaluate the experimental constant values of C and n by simple regression analysis. Based on the values of "C" and "n", convective and evaporative heat transfer coefficients for ivy gourd were determined. The average convective heat and mass transfer coefficients varied between 2.64 and 8.30W/m2 °C and 0.0025 to 0.0076m/s for temperature ranges, at the different air velocities, respectively. The average evaporative heat transfer coefficient for ivy gourd varied from 181.89 to 421.84W/m2 °C. It was observed that convective and evaporative heat transfer coefficients increase with the increase in drying air temperature. The rate of increment of evaporative heat transfer coefficient is higher than the convective heat transfer coefficient. The intensity of heat and mass transfer during solar drying depends on the drying air temperature and velocity.

Process Intensification of CO2 Desorption

Anthropogenic climate change due to, among other causes, unhindered CO2 emissions is a major concern worldwide. The post-combustion capture (PCC) process using a solvent, known as chemical absorption, is currently the most effective way to reduce CO2 emissions from large point sources. However, high capital investment costs when using the conventional packed bed absorber/desorber technology and high energy requirements during solvent regeneration are the primary obstacles for its large-scale implementation. Different process intensification (PI) technologies to desorb CO2 from the solvent have been introduced to mitigate the energy consumption compared to the conventional packed bed technology. This work reviews different technologies for intensification of CO2 desorption. In this context, rotating packed beds, microreactors, and membrane contactors have been explored as potential alternatives to intensify the desorption because of their superior mass and heat transfer. Alternative energy sources like ultrasound and microwaves have also been used to improve the desorption performance of conventional equipments. PI can also be realized by using novel solvents with improved desorption kinetics in combination with intensification equipment. Thus in this review, a comprehensive assessment of different existing PI technologies based on regeneration energies and regeneration efficiencies relative to conventional technology is presented. The intensification of mass transfer for the different technologies is compared, and a new parameter, named the regeneration factor, is proposed to evaluate the performance of PI equipment. This study outlines the advances in process intensification of CO2 desorption technologies to date and presents an overview of the merits and limits of all technologies.

Appropriate choice of mixing inserts in a milli‐reactor for g‐L mass transfer intensification in different liquid media

Appropriate choice of mixing inserts in a milli‐reactor for g‐L mass transfer intensification in different liquid media

Improving the efficiency of cooling towers in the water cycle

Cooling towers are the main equipment of the water cycle. Cooling is carried out by the circulating water of heat exchange devices. The heated water is cooled in cooling towers by mixing with the air flow and again directed to use as a cooling agent. Cooling is carried out as a result of heat exchange. The driving force necessary to overcome the friction force of the flows, which interferes with the flow of air, is provided by injection or exhaust fans. The total driving force can be expressed as the sum of the individual driving forces in the air and water flows. The work with air mixing of the liquid phase is carried out due to the energy of compressed air and can be calculated as the work of isothermal compression according to the equations given in the work. Cooling towers of various types are known. Fan cooling towers are the most advanced type of water coolers, since they provide practically stable cooling of water by changing the fan speed or their periodic shutdown, they allow higher thermal loads and deep cooling of water, that is, a greater approximation of the temperature of the cooled water to the theoretical cooling limit due to the increased relative air flow passing through the cooling tower. The main characteristics of cooling towers in terms of irrigation area, hydraulic load, etc. are given. A diagram of a fan cooling tower is presented, its main advantages are listed, such as cooling capacity, intensification of mass transfer (water) to another (air), that is, a typical process of coupled heat and mass transfer. The main elements of the cooling tower are considered. The sprinkler, as the main element of the cooling tower, is necessary to increase the contact surface between water and air, accelerate the cooling process. The ways of increasing the efficiency of their operation are shown. Water traps minimize drip entrainment – up to 100%. Water distribution systems should evenly distribute the cooled water over the surface area of the sprinkler. The energy consumption coming through the nozzles is presented. The role of entrance windows as elements of a cooling tower is highlighted, the main directions for further improving the efficiency of modern cooling towers.

Extractive desulfurization in microchannels with polyethylene glycol 400: An experimental study and mass transfer evaluation

Conventional methods for removing sulfur compounds show unsatisfactory performance, especially when treating aromatic compounds. Current studies have directed efforts to investigate extraction desulfurization (EDS) using microdevices to overcome this difficulty. These units are designed with micrometer-sized channels responsible for intensifying heat and mass transfer phenomena. When using EDS, an adequate choice of extraction solvent is essential and among the possibilities, an excellent candidate for extraction solvent is polyethylene glycol (PEG). The present work studied the extractive performance offered by microdevices and the aspects related to mass transfer intensification by adopting PEG 400 as an extraction solvent in the removal of dibenzothiophene. The identification of flow patterns was performed by digital image colorimetry, making it possible to estimate the specific interfacial area (as) and the overall mass transfer coefficient (KLas) more accurately. DBT decontamination behavior was investigated under different volumetric flow rates (71.74–326.58 μL/min), different microchannel lengths (1.0–2.0 m), and a fixed diameter of 0.5 mm. The best result achieved an extractive efficiency of 94.06%, corresponding to a volumetric flow rate of 107.30 μL/min, whose interfacial area and overall mass transfer coefficients related to the slug flow pattern were calculated as 453.69 m−1 and 0.0229 s−1, respectively.

Nanosheets-stacked Al2O3-flower anchoring Pt catalyst for intensified ethylene production from ethane dehydrogenation

Catalytic ethane dehydrogenation (CEDH) to ethylene is an important alternative to oil-based cracking processes due to the shale gas revolution, but the dominant Pt-based catalysts still suffer from fast deactivation, caused by coke formation and Pt sintering. Herein, we report a catalyst of nanosheets-stacked Al2O3-flower anchoring Pt species onto pentacoordinated Al (AlV) sites with a low Pt loading of only 0.07 wt%. This catalyst was prepared by a simple wet impregnation method without introducing any promoter, exhibiting a stable ethane conversion of 25–27 % (close to thermodynamic equilibrium conversion) with ethylene selectivity of 95–97 % within a single running of 300 h (590 °C, 33 vol% C2H6/N2, GHSVC2H6 of 2100 mL h−1 g−1), and moreover, a high TOF value of 6084 h−1 could be achieved. This work offers a promising CEDH catalyst, with both very high Pt dispersion (from appropriate amount of AlV sites) and intensified mass transfer (from nanosheet feature).

Scale-Up Strategies of Jet Loop Reactors for the Intensification of Mass Transfer Limited Reactions

For the purpose of the intensification of an industrial-scale gas-liquid process, the implementation in an alternative reactor concept is investigated at Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH) in cooperation with Ehrfeld Mikrotechnik GmbH. Existing process operation data from a bubble column hint at a mass transfer limitation of the gas-liquid reaction. In the project, a jet loop reactor (JLR) is chosen to increase the specific interfacial area between gas and liquid, and thus increase mass transfer, while keeping the reactor system mechanically simple and low-maintenance. For the investigation, a laboratory scale reactor has been designed on the basis of an existing industrial scale process and scaled according to a pilot scale reactor available at TUHH. For scaling, geometric similarity is desired, while specific energy dissipation rate and volumetric gas input are kept constant for the chosen scale-up strategy. Between the two different scales, the reactors are successfully characterised in a water-air system with regards to the important mass transfer, among other parameters. A pressure- and chemical-resistant twin of the laboratory-scale reactor is provided to the project partner for trials under real process conditions with the original material system. The presented work shows that the JLR concept can be transferred sufficiently well between different scales when suitable parameters are chosen, and offers a wide operating window. The investigations aim to provide a basis for a future scale-up of the chemical process in the JLR system to the industrial scale.