Intensification Of Economic Activity Research Articles

Silaum silaus (L.) Schinz and Thell.—Habitat Conditions and Variation in Selected Characteristics of Populations at Different Densities

Grasslands are one of the most diverse and species-rich ecosystems in the agricultural landscape of Central Europe. However, they are gradually being overgrown or transformed into arable fields due to their abandonment and the intensification of economic activities. This leads to a drastic decline in biodiversity and the disappearance of many rare species, e.g., Silaum silaus. Research on Silaum silaus populations was conducted in the years 2020 and 2022. Data were obtained from two Natura 2000 sites. The Jaćmierz site is located in a dispersed range of Silaum silaus in south-eastern Poland. The site at Zagórzyce is located in a dense range of the species in the south-western part of the country. Research on the habitat conditions was conducted on two permanent study surfaces with the dimensions of 10 × 10 m. This research included a soil study and measurements of herbaceous vegetation. To determine the habitat conditions, use was also made of Ellenberg ecological indicator values. At each site, 10 phytosociological relevés were conducted with the Braun-Blanquet method. In each study year, the manner of land use was determined. For detailed population study, one permanent surface of the dimensions 10 × 10 m was marked out, on which each year the generative and vegetative specimens were counted and biometric studies were conducted on 30 randomly chosen generative specimens. The species occurred in two different meadow communities (Arrhenatheretum elatioris, Molinietum caeruleae), which were characterised by different habitat conditions, and the greatest differences were evident in the chemical properties of the soil and in the method of management. The meadows at Jaćmierz were mowed twice a year, while at Zagórzyce mowing was performed once every two years. The communities were also varied in terms of flora, characterised by a high species richness and a high Shannon–Wiener index. Silaum silaus had significantly greater numbers and an over four times higher cover coefficient at Jaćmierz. The largest differences in the analysed traits of the species occurred in the case of generative traits. It was observed that management practices at Jaćmierz had a strong influence on the condition of specimens and the population size of Silaum silaus, which was much better preserved at this site.

Биоклиматические варианты оробиома Северо-Восточного Забайкалья

Introduction. The spatial structure of the biota at the regional level of its organization is most closely associated with the climate, expressed primarily through bioclimatic indicators. In the geography of the botanical diversity of Northeastern Transbaikalia, which is characterized by a complex organization of vegetation cover, the influence of a number of important gradients of climatic conditions is expressed. The identification of these gradients was the purpose of this research. Methods and materials of the research. The methodological basis of the research was the ecosystem approach to the identification and evaluation of phytocenotic diversity associated with ecological and geographical factors that determine its spatial differentiation. The geographic and genetic classification of plant communities was used to identify the typological diversity of vegetation. The climatic characteristics of the Northeastern Transbaikalia was given on the basis of key bioclimatic indicators (global model BioClim). The bioclimatic substantiation of the spatial structure was carried out taking into account the principles of identifying the diversity of ecosystems at the regional level. Mapping of the bioclimatic variants of the orobiome was compiled using the clustering of units according to the average values of parameters by the k-means method. Research results and discussion. A joint analysis of vegetation and climate made it possible, for the first time for Northeastern Transbaikalia, to determine the internal structure of ecosystem diversity that develops in the mountains within the framework of an orobiome. It also allowed mapping the spatial organization of ecosystems at the regional level on a climate basis. Using the cluster analysis of climatopes of the main vegetation formations, subdivisions of the orobiome (bioclimatic variants) are proposed. Two variants of the Ist order are expressed through the structure of the vegetation cover of mountain systems: the relatively low Patom highland in the north, and more massive ridges of the strongly dissected North Baikal and Stanovoy highlands in the south. Variants of the IInd order, differing in the degree of continentality and moisture conditions, have specificity in the altitudinal belts and sub-belts of vegetation. Diversity within belts and sub-belts, expressed through the typological diversity of vegetation at the level of formations, classes, and groups of associations, is marked by climatic differences in bioclimatic variants of the IIIrd order. The diversity of climatic conditions that determine the phytocoenotic diversity of Northeastern Transbaikalia is characterized through integral bioclimatic types of orobiome, determined by temperature and moisture supply. Three ombroclimatic types were distinguished by continentality conditions. The influence of the complex orographic structure of a vast mountainous territory, as well as zonal and sectoral patterns in changing climatic conditions, is characterized in their change from continental to extracontinental in according to the degree of climate continentality. The same factors determine the identification of three thermoclimatic types, which are associated with the distinguished altitudinal vegetation belts (mountain tundra, subalpine, mountain taiga). The temperate cold type is expressed in the intermountain depressions and low mountains of the Patom highlands, the cold type is associated with the middle mountains and the lower part of the high mountains (mountain taiga and subalpine belts), and the extra cold type is distinguished in the high mountains of the most massive ridges – Kodar and Kalar. Conclusion. Quantitative interpretation of the climatic conditions of the bioclimatic variants of the orobiome made it possible to give an integral evaluation of the climatic conditionality of the development of basic vegetation formations, the altitudinal belt divisions, and the altitudinal spectra of vegetation in general. The resulting basis can be used for the sustainable development of the region in connection with economic activities in areas adjacent to the Baikal-Amur Railway, for monitoring and forecasting changes in vegetation and ecosystems in general due to climate change and intensification of economic activities in the region.

Leptospirosis in Vietnam

Leptospirosis poses a serious public health problem in many countries because about 1 million people suffer annually from this severe, often fatal, infection. At present, its importance has been increasing due to development of integration processes, globalization and intensification of economic activities, inevitable anthropogenic transformation of landscapes as well as rise in number of people with occupational risk of pathogen exposure. The burden of human leptospirosis is expected to rise with demographic shifts and climate change that result in heavy rainfall and flooding. Regarding leptospirosis, Southeast Asia, including Vietnam, is among the most vulnerable global regions. The objective of the review was to analyze available published data on the spread of leptospirosis in Vietnam. More than 100 research articles were analyzed allowing to state that in Vietnam synanthropic rodents (rats), agricultural (buffaloes, cattle, pigs) and domestic animals (cats, dogs) are the main sources of leptospirosis infection in humans. It is essential that rats (cats and dogs also) in Vietnam are used for food. Among all farm animals, pigs are of maximal importance as a source of infection in humans. In Vietnam, Leptospira prevalence in pigs varies widely, up to 73%. It depends significantly on the location, farm size, age and gender of animals, etc. A large variety of Leptospira serovars have been identified in pigs in Vietnam: Tarassovi, Bratislava, Australis, Javanica, Autumnalis, Grippotyphosa, and some others. Official Vietnam reporting of leptospirosis cases based on clinical data does not reflect the real-life incidence rate in humans. However, the available seroprevalence studies reveal that, on average, about 10% of the Vietnamese population are infected with Leptospira. Work in agriculture is the dominant risk factor for acquiring this infection. The highest Leptospira seroprevalence rates were detected in farmers, 63.2%. Serovar diversity is typical for pathogenic Leptospira circulating in Vietnam. In humans, the most frequent are antibodies to Hebdomadis, Wolffi and Icterohaemorrhagiae, but the frequency varied markedly across the country depending on the site, possibly with relation to the environment, as well as with economic activity of the local population. In Vietnam, geographic, climatic and social differences between northern, central and southern regions contribute to the specificity of local leptospirosis epidemiology. This emphasizes the advisability of developing special measures for leptospirosis prevention taking into account regional peculiarities.

Working out the method of disinfection of soil Anthrax foci using the «BA-12» disinfectant

Outbreaks of anthrax have been officially registered with noticeable constancy in Kazakhstan since 1935 and up to the present. Preservation of the instability of the epizootic situation is facilitated by the presence of permanently unfavorable sites for anthrax and soil foci, the number of which, as previously conducted studies have shown, exceeds more than two thousand.Taking into account the ongoing processes related to the modernization of the country's economy, the intensification of economic activity, including construction, the development of new lands and the introduction into circulation of old, "abandoned" territories, the development of agriculture and animal husbandry, the definition of the danger of anthrax burials seems very relevant. Therefore, the development of methods for disinfection of soil foci is an urgent problem of biosafety and biosecurity in many countries of the world, including Kazakhstan.Wells (pits) with a depth of 3.0 m, with different distances between wells, namely: 50 cm, 80 cm and 1.0 m, were prepared for conducting research at experimental sites with a size of 1.0 x1.0 m2. A solution with a vaccine culture of Bacillus anthracis 55-VNIIVViM was pre-poured into all prepared wells, and then after 24 hours it was treated with a «BA-12» disinfectant.The experiments have shown that complete disinfection of the soil to a depth of 3.0 is achieved by filling wells three times with a disinfectant, the distance between which is no more than 50 cm.

РЕПОПУЛЯЦИЯ ГОРНЫХ ПОСЕЛЕНИЙ: ПРОБЛЕМЫ И ПЕРСПЕКТИВЫ (На примере РСО-Алания)

Introduction. For North Ossetia, where about half of the territory is occupied by mountains, the problems of the mountain population and settlement are of particular relevance. They are becoming even more relevant now, in connection with the intensification of economic activity in the mountains, the construction of a cascade of Zaramag HPPs, the implementation of the Mamison project, the optimization of recreational activities, the development of environmentally friendly cattle breeding, fish farming, crop production, etc. Settlement began to rebuild to meet the needs of the economy, the infrastructure began to improve (gasification, electrification, computerization, etc.), the population again reached for the mountains. Research methods. The study of mountain settlement in the North Caucasus has begun relatively recently. The first works appeared in the 1990s. They covered the territory from Dagestan to Adygea. Mountain settlement in Dagestan was studied by Sh.S. Muduev [4], in Kabardino-Balkaria by A.E. Zelenskaya [5], in Adygea by F.V. Tlehuray [6]. A.D. Badov [7–9; 20]. Studies of mountain settlement were also carried out by Yu.P. Badenkov [1; 10; 11], V.S. Belozerov [12], P.P. Turun [13] and others. Research results. Currently, there is a stabilization and even a slight increase in the population in the mountainous part of North Ossetia. At the same time, in summer, the number of the living population increases significantly due to the arrival of summer residents and tourists. The number of summer residents has increased significantly over the recent period, especially in the Kurtat gorge. However, some problems of both demographic and ecological character are revealed. Thus, in a number of villages there is a significant disproportion in the sex structure of the population, which negatively affects the marriage rate of the population [5]. The dumps in the mountains have not been liquidated yet, the tailing dumps have been reclaimed with design errors and imperfections.

Occupational Health Risks from Combined Exposure to Welding Fumes and Cold Environment for Welders

Introduction: Intensification of economic activities in the northern regions of Russia requires a better understanding of the combined health effect of cold environment and occupational risk factors. Objective: To assess the risk of developing health disorders in gas and electric welders exposed to low and normal workplace temperatures. Materials and methods: We conducted a comparative analysis of working conditions and health status of welders at two enterprises. The main cohort included 310 workers exposed to welding fumes and cold microclimate in an underground mine. The control cohort included 282 employees of a railcar manufacturing facility performing their functional duties in workshops with acceptable microclimate parameters. Results: According to the results of periodic medical examinations, 499 chronic diseases were diagnosed in welders of the main cohort against 230 among the controls. Compared to the reference cohort, underground welders were at higher risk of developing diseases of the digestive system (RR = 2.63; CI: 1.47–4.70; p = 0.0006), genitourinary (RR = 6.55; CI: 1.51–28.4; p = 0.004), musculoskeletal (RR = 1.50; CI: 1.14–1.97; p = 0.003), and nervous systems (RR = 5.29; CI 1.19–23.4; p = 0.014), skin (RR = 3.85; CI: 1.61–9.18; p = 0.001), respiratory organs (RR = 3.23; CI: 1.84–5.69; p < 0.001), as well as infectious and parasitic diseases (RR = 8.61; CI: 2.03–36.5; p = 0.0004). Thus, the number of healthy workers was smaller while the number of workers suffering from two or more chronic diseases was bigger in this cohort (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The welders working in cold environment were significantly less healthy than those working in normal workplace temperatures. The results necessitate the development of additional measures of disease prevention for this category of employees.

Changes in the complex of rare and endangered mammals (Mammalia) in present-day Rostov Nature Reserve since the middle of the twentieth century

Under the influence of various factors, the ecosystems of dry steppes of Russia have undergone profound changes since the middle of the twentieth century. In the work dedicated to the territory occupied by the present-day Rostov Nature Reserve, the changes in mammals included in regional, federal and international Red Books (lists) and causes of these changes are reviewed. Until the 1950s, human use of steppes was limited due to scarcity of fresh water, which assured the preservation of natural xerophytic vegetation and associated fauna. Irrigation of steppes contributed to the intensive development of animal husbandry, restructuring of ecosystems with their biodiversity and the formation of anthropogenic deserts. To restore natural ecosystems, the Rostov Nature Reserve was created in 1996, and its activities made preservation of natural biodiversity possible. As a result of the deep restructuring of ecosystems, the modified biogeocenosis was very different from that in the mid-1950s of the XX century. Mammals typical for dry steppes in the past under the influence of various anthropogenic and natural causes considered in the article have become rare and endangered in present-day ecosystems. Intensification of economic activity in the twenty first century and climate warming increase the negative impact on steppe ecosystems and rare mammals. Possibilities for the conservation of rare and endangered mammals in the reserve are discussed.

Мониторинг cтрепета (Tetrax tetrax Linnaeus, 1758) на территории заповедника «Ростовский» c середины ХХ века до 2020 года

The purpose of the work. Elucidation of changes in the number and distribution of little bustard (Tetrax tetrax Linnaeus, 1758) on the territory of the Rostov Nature Reserve in the 20th-21st centuries and the reasons for their transformation. Place and methods of work. The reserve is located in the arid Eastern European steppes. The authors used their own observations from 1959 and publications on Tetrax tetrax L. The materials are collected using regular route methods and animal tracking at individual sites, as well as analysis of published information. Results. The little bustard is a characteristic steppe species that historically lived on the Don land. Since the mid-twentieth century, the steppes have experienced deep anthropogenic changes, which have had a great impact on this species. Currently, the little bustard in the steppe zone is a rare species. The creation of the reserve has had a positive impact on this species. In it, the little bustard is a small breeding species, and its number is constrained by a number of factors. The intensification of economic activity in the region and the aridization of the climate make it necessary to improve environmental protection work.

Treatability tests of synthetic leachate from the Al-Hoceima city controlled landfill

Due to population growth and the intensification of economic activity, the production of solid waste is constantly increasing in Morocco [1]. Several programs consist of the establishment of controlled landfills and the rehabilitation of uncontrolled landfills. The impact of landfilling is the production of liquid effluents rich in organic, mineral, and metallic matter called leachate [2,3]. The choice of leachate treatment is based on the characteristics of the leachate. Any treatment process has advantages and limitations, so before proceeding with the treatment it is necessary to characterize the leachate to choose the appropriate process [11]. The objective of this study is to prepare synthetic leachate based on the characteristics of real leachate (case of the controlled landfill of Al Hoceima), in order to carry out treatability tests of this synthetic leachate by controlling the various parameters of analysis. This solution was made from organic (CH3CO2H, CH3CO2Na) and inorganic compounds (MgSO4, CaCl2, Ca(OH)2, NH4Cl, KOH, MgCl2), the various analyzes of this solution gave values comparable to the real solution. This work was devoted to carrying out the treatability tests of synthetic leachate by a process of adsorption on bentonite, by studying its yield to reduce the organic load.

Competitiveness of Ukraine's economy: what factors interfere with its development

Introduction. Today, the competitiveness of the national economy is one of the most influential concepts of development economics and practical policy, because it not only covers purely economic indicators, but also evaluates the economic results of non-economic phenomena important for stable growth, such as quality of political processes and governance. education, scientific base, rule of law, culture, value system, information structure. There are many scientific papers in the world that study the competitiveness of countries in the context of globalization. This problem was studied in detail by P. Krugman, E. Warner, J. Keynes, R. Barro, M. Porter, and J. Schumpeter. Despite such a large number of studies, the problems of forming the country's competitiveness still remain unsolved and not sufficiently substantiated. The purpose of the paper is to analyze the level of competitiveness of the economy of Ukraine and its regions, to identify factors that hinder development. Result. The key to Ukraine's high competitiveness at the international level is to increase the efficiency and productivity of the diversified national economy, which must be based on a strong technological, scientific and investment base. The current level of budget funding for education is devoid of investment, does not provide reliable development and modernization of education. Domestic business structures have not yet realized that investing in education is one of the most profitable areas of investment. The strategic task for Ukraine at the present stage should be the priority development of science and high technologies and active innovation policy. Innovation is the potential for economic growth. Conclusion. Only through the intensification of economic activity will Ukraine be able to integrate into the world community, ensure the necessary level of economic security and well-being of citizens. To ensure competitiveness, it is necessary to reorient financial resources from current consumption to investment and direct investment activities to the formation of an efficient national economy, in particular, to innovate investments, intensify innovation as a priority component of socio-economic development strategy.

The creation of special commodity fish farm on the black sea lakes of Odesa region

Pond fisheries are one of the promising areas of fisheries in Ukraine and the world. The vast resources of the inland waters of our country are a reliable source of valuable fishery products. However, the potential of this source is not fully exhausted. Therefore, a significant increase in the production of commercial fish can be achieved as a result of the construction of new commercial fisheries and factories, whose task is to recreate fish stocks. One of the leading places among all kinds of outdoor activities is sports and amateur fishing. Capture fishing has become a permanent fixture for hundreds of millions of people around the world. It is estimated that in Ukraine sport and recreational fisheries cover about 10 % of the population. The purpose of the work was to find out the current state of fish productivity of the Black Sea ponds of Odesa region for the creation of specialized fisheries. The fish productivity of the Black Sea ponds, the forage base and the ichthyofauna were investigated, the most valuable representatives of the ichthyofauna for amateur fisheries in these reservoirs were identified, the recommendations on the creation of a special cultural fishery on the Black Sea ponds were provided. It is established that the feed base in the Black Sea ponds for fish young is quite rich and varied. The current state of development of the forage base indicates the possibility of successful fishing activities and in particular the development of recreational fisheries. In case of intensification of economic activity there is a need to carry out a certain complex of fish-and-melioration works. As a result of the conducted researches it is established that the Black Sea ponds should be used for the creation of cultural fisheries for the purpose of organizing amateur fisheries, and the formation of ichthyocenosis should be carried out by purposeful fishing of valuable fish species suitable as objects of amateur and sport fisheries. Creating appropriate conditions for amateur fisheries as a popular way of recreational recreation of a large part of the population of Ukraine involves solving a number of biological, environmental and legal issues related to the reproduction and acclimatization of fish, the organization of sports and recreational fisheries, taking into account the characteristics of reservoirs, the impact of ecological and climatic conditions fisheries, etc.

ЭВОЛЮЦИЯ МЕХАНИЗМОВ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЙ ПОДДЕРЖКИ ОТРАСЛИ ПРОИЗВОДСТВА ТРАНСПОРТНОГО БИОТОПЛИВА В США И ПЕРСПЕКТИВЫ ДЛЯ РОССИИ

Over the past 30 years the United States has made significant progress in the development of the biofuel industry. At present US holds a leading position in the global production, consumption and export of first-generation bioethanol, and steadily increasing the production and consumption of first and second generation biodiesel. These successes are based on a state policy aimed at creating domestic demand for transport biofuels and stimulating its production by enterprises located in the United States. The main prerequisites for the implementation of this policy are based on the positive economic and environmental effects that accompany the production and consumption of bioethanol and biodiesel. These include, first of all, the intensification of economic activity in agriculture, the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and emissions of pollutants by road, and the diversification of energy consumption patterns. In the Russian Federation, the production and consumption of transport biofuel is currently not carried out on a significant scale. However, the production of first-generation bioethanol can have a positive impact on individual agricultural markets that require the formation of new sources of demand.

Ecosystems Transformation and Assessment of Bird Resources in the Republic of Tatarstan (Russia)

The intensification of economic activities, wide scales of the destruction of the woods, the growth of the areas of the worked lands, creation of water basins, urbanization and other forms of transformation of natural landscapes for last centuries have essentially changed the conditions of animals’ habitation. 305 species of birds can be found within the territory of Tatarstan. We performed an analysis of the state of the ornithofauna over the past 120 years, which allowed us to get estimates of species density and distribution in the republic. The research material is a gain to the knowledge about ornithofauna of Tatarstan, the state of each species populations and may be used to develop a regional monitoring system.

Fostering Cross-Sector Collaboration to Promote Innovation in the Water Sector

Ongoing global climate change, growing population and the intensification of economic activities, increase pressure on water resources, a situation many see as a water governance crisis. Water-related issues are becoming a limiting factor for sustainable economic growth and require a collaborative and interdisciplinary approach, to foster innovative solutions. This paper provides an evidence-based contribution to understanding Triple Helix Model (THM) relations and the path to innovation policy in the water sector. The analysis focuses on the interaction between university–industry–government, with specific reference to the Murcia region in Southeast Spain. This region combines a chronic shortage of water and a leading role for agriculture. Starting from the experience of a researcher, working for the General Water Council of the Murcia Region, this paper is based on both desk research and in-depth personal interviews with representatives of THM actors. In addition, a questionnaire was forwarded to all those companies in charge of providing water services in the Murcia region. The study has found that stakeholders are not fully cooperative in seeking innovation. The main challenges are the renewal of water-related facilities and the improvement of remote control systems, denitrification and desalination technologies and achieving better energy efficiency. To this aim, THM approach is suggested as a source of local innovation policies, identifying a series of tools to foster a collaborative approach.

Гидрохимия рек природного заказника «Тумнинский»

Intensification of economic activities (construction of terminal for liquefied hydrocarbon gas, coal and alumina trans-shipment) in the Khabarovsk Kray Vanino Rayon made it necessary to determine the dissolved substances background concentrations in the river waters. The 2015 observations in the Vanino Rayon “Tumninskiy” nature reserve enabled to establish spatial variability of the substances content in the small rivers’ water during the summer-fall low water period. According to the 1966–1982 Rosgidromet data the characteristic of the Tumnin River water chemical composition has been given. Differences in the dissolved substances content in the natural reserve rivers’ waters caused by the territory natural/climatic special features have been revealed. The mineralization low values (<55 mg/dm3) and hydro/carbonate/calcium composition of the Tumnin River and its left-side tributaries’ waters have been shown. The sodium ions and chloride ions higher concentrations (at the average 2.0 mg/dm3 higher) and mineralization values (10 mg/dm3 higher) have been registered in the Tatar Strait coast mainland part rivers’ waters outside the zone of the high/low tides flows influence. Higher concentrations of aluminum, iron, manganese and organic matter have been found in the Tumnin River basin small rivers’ waters draining wetlands in the catchment lower parts. Nitrates nitrogen maximal concentrations have been notices in the Tatar Strait coast continental part rivers’ waters whose catchments had been affected by forest fires. The higher concentrations of silicon and mineral phosphorous have been shown in the small rivers’ waters draining deposits of volcano origin. Dissolved microelements concentrations in the conditions of the river waters low mineralization are comparatively low.

Economic uncertainty and its impact on the Croatian economy

The aim of this paper is to quantify institutional (political and fiscal) and non-institutional uncertainty (economic policy uncertainty, Economists’ recession index, natural disasters-related uncertainty, and several disagreement measures). The stated indicators are based on articles from highly popular Croatian news portals, the repository of law amendments (Narodne novine), and Business and Consumer Surveys. We also introduce a composite uncertainty indicator, obtained by the principal components method. The analysis of a structural VAR model of the Croatian economy (both with fixed and time-varying parameters) has showed that a vast part of the analysed indicators are significant predictors of economic activity. It is demonstrated that their impact on industrial production is the strongest in the onset of a crisis. On the other hand, the influence of fiscal uncertainty exhibits just the opposite tendencies. It strengthens with the intensification of economic activity, which partially exculpates the possible utilization of fiscal expansion as a counter-crisis tool.

The West Mouth Neolithic Cemetery, Niah Cave, Sarawak

Excavations between 1954 and 1967 in the West Mouth, Niah Cave (Sarawak) uncovered the largest Neolithic cemetery in South-east Asia with over 150 burials. Subsequent work at the site in the 1970s and most recently by the Niah Caves Project (2000–2004) brought the total to 170, comprising 89 primary burials and 79 secondary burials, and two ‘multiple’ burials. The size of cemetery and the scale of the archaeological data are unprecedented in South-east Asian Neolithic archaeology and offer a unique opportunity to investigate the cemetery's origins, development, and history in detail. Analysis of the demographic structure of discrete spatial burial groups within the cemetery and their short term burial sequences are combined to interpret the history of changing burial practice in terms of different social/settlement groups using the cave as a communal place of burial. A new suite of radiocarbon dates are used to date the West Mouth Neolithic cemetery to between 1500 and 200bc. Six phases of burial are defined and the associated transitions of ritual practices are discussed. In particular, a transition from primary to secondary burial occurred aroundc.1000bc, which subsequently intensified into the practice of cremation. This process was likely associated/fuelled by an intensification of economic activity to support more elaborate secondary burial funerals. Two further cycles of primary and secondary burial followed, before the main cemetery ceasedc.200bc. A Post-Neolithic phase of possibly 14 burials (five primary flexed burials and nine secondary burials) is proposed to follow, which while continuing aspects of Neolithic mortuary behaviour, is considered on isotopic data to represent a group of hunter-gatherers living in a closed-canopy environment

Introduction of Dengue Virus 4 (DENV-4) Genotype I into Brazil from Asia?

Dengue fever is the most important viral neglected tropical disease [1], and during 2008 more than 865,000 cases of dengue infection were reported in the American continent. Brazil is experiencing severe yearly outbreaks of dengue virus (DENV) serotypes 1 to 3 [2]. Since its brief incursion into the eastern Brazilian Amazon in 1982 [3], DENV-4 has not been detected or known to have caused outbreaks in Brazil; as a result, its inclusion in routine epidemiological surveillance protocols was deemed unnecessary by Brazilian health authorities. In 2008, however, DENV-4 was reported in three patients without any history of traveling outside Manaus (Brazil) by academic researchers who did not have any DENV-4 strains in their laboratories [4]. The Brazilian health authorities dismissed the work, not only by not being able to reproduce the findings in their own laboratories, but also by arguing that ultimately there is no apparent DENV-4 outbreak in Brazil. But what could the available sequences from two of the patients actually be showing? To their credit, Figueiredo et al. [4] identified the sequences as DENV-4 using a coarse-grained similarity search with BLAST [5]. Nevertheless, sequences sharing the highest bit-scores in BLAST are not necessarily the closest phylogenetic relatives [6]. Therefore, we have undertaken a more detailed phylogenetic analysis of the controversial samples from Manaus. An initial dataset including reference sequences from all four serotypes was used to classify the samples from Manaus (dataset available upon request). The results supported the previous finding that samples AM750 and AM1619 were indeed DENV-4. A second data set was then assembled containing 34 DENV-4 sequences, including all three DENV-4 genotypes (I, II, and III) known to cause outbreaks around the world [7] (GenBank accession numbers {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:EU127900,term_id:159170579,term_text:EU127900}}EU127900, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:EU127899,term_id:159170576,term_text:EU127899}}EU127899, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY947539,term_id:61652904,term_text:AY947539}}AY947539, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY618992,term_id:53653750,term_text:AY618992}}AY618992, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY618991,term_id:53653748,term_text:AY618991}}AY618991, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY618990,term_id:53653746,term_text:AY618990}}AY618990, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY618989,term_id:53653744,term_text:AY618989}}AY618989, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY618988,term_id:53653742,term_text:AY618988}}AY618988, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152360,term_id:28171535,term_text:AY152360}}AY152360, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152316,term_id:28171436,term_text:AY152316}}AY152316, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152312,term_id:28171427,term_text:AY152312}}AY152312, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152304,term_id:28171409,term_text:AY152304}}AY152304, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152300,term_id:28171400,term_text:AY152300}}AY152300, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152292,term_id:28171382,term_text:AY152292}}AY152292, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152260,term_id:28171310,term_text:AY152260}}AY152260, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152252,term_id:28171292,term_text:AY152252}}AY152252, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152212,term_id:28171202,term_text:AY152212}}AY152212, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152148,term_id:28171058,term_text:AY152148}}AY152148, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152144,term_id:28171049,term_text:AY152144}}AY152144, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152132,term_id:28171022,term_text:AY152132}}AY152132, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152112,term_id:28170977,term_text:AY152112}}AY152112, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152108,term_id:28170968,term_text:AY152108}}AY152108, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152104,term_id:28170959,term_text:AY152104}}AY152104, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152100,term_id:28170950,term_text:AY152100}}AY152100, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152096,term_id:28170941,term_text:AY152096}}AY152096, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152092,term_id:28170932,term_text:AY152092}}AY152092, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152088,term_id:28170923,term_text:AY152088}}AY152088, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152084,term_id:28170914,term_text:AY152084}}AY152084, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152076,term_id:28170896,term_text:AY152076}}AY152076, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152064,term_id:28170869,term_text:AY152064}}AY152064, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152060,term_id:28170860,term_text:AY152060}}AY152060, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AY152052,term_id:28170842,term_text:AY152052}}AY152052, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AF326573,term_id:12659201,term_text:AF326573}}AF326573, and {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AF289029,term_id:11096032,term_text:AF289029}}AF289029). Crucially, both samples from Manaus were sister taxa and nested within Asian genotype I (Figure 1, see legend for methods used) using a genetic algorithm–based method [8]. This result was also obtained more than 91% of the time during maximum likelihood non-parametric bootstrap with the PhyML program [9] (Figure 1). Moreover, it also had a high Bayesian posterior probability (0.99) while using a Markov chain Monte Carlo inference-based method in the MrBayes program [10] (Figure 1). Remarkably, the samples isolated in Manaus in 2007 were distinct, which would be expected from viruses isolated from different individuals in a web of transmission. We further substantiated our findings by comparing the likelihood of the observed tree (lnL = −1588.53) to those estimated for alternative groupings into genotype II (lnL = −1705.85) and III (lnL = −1702.88). We argue that the likelihood differences in combination with high non-parametric bootstrap values and high posterior probabilities (Figure 1) constitute considerable evidence that DENV-4 genotype I strains may be in fact circulating in Brazil. Nevertheless, even with the high levels of support obtained during our analysis, we would argue that additional sequence information is necessary to further describe these strains. Figure 1 Phylogenetic Tree for DENV-4 Samples from Manaus, Brazil. While genotype II has been present in the Americas for over two decades, the presence of DENV-4 genotype I in Brazil was a rather unexpected result, since genotype I is not known to be circulating in the West [3],[11],[12]. Moreover, we would expect its emergence in Central America and the Caribbean first, following the pattern of introduction of many other DENVs [13], but the intensification of economic activities between Brazil and other Asian countries (especially China) could explain a direct introduction to Brazil that bypasses the Caribbean. These are preliminary, albeit potentially troublesome, results, and it begs checking if these strains entered Brazil directly or if DENV-4 genotype I is already experiencing cryptic circulation elsewhere in the Americas. Although DENV-4 is less prevalent (2%), it has been shown to be involved in 10% of dengue hemorrhagic fever cases following secondary infections in children in Thailand [14]. In sum, the presence of DENV-4 in the Americas should be taken with great caution and warrant an intensification of the ongoing surveillance activities in Brazil in particular, where routine serology and nucleic acid detection methodology that includes DENV-4 should be considered.