Histamine Intake Research Articles

Relationship between dietary histamine intake and clinical parameters in Behçet syndrome

Relationship between dietary histamine intake and clinical parameters in Behçet syndrome

The Factors Influencing the Concentration of Histamine in Jarred Baby Foods Containing Fish, Considering Evaluation of Daily Histamine Intake

Histamine is one of the biogenic amines produced naturally in the human body, but also in foods, especially those rich in protein. Exogenous and endogenous histamine is subject to degradation in vivo, but in the case of sensitive groups, including children, these degradation processes may be less intense, resulting in adverse health effects from histamine excess. The aim of the study was to determine the histamine content in jarred baby foods containing fish, taking into account the selected product characteristics and storage conditions. The study included 140 meals with added fish, intended for infants and young children, from 5 leading manufacturers available in Poland. The infant meals were analyzed on the day of opening, after 24 h and 48 h of storage in the refrigerator and at room temperature. Histamine concentration was determined by ELISA. The THQ was calculated from the EDI values for histamine. Histamine was present in all analyzed baby foods. On the day of opening, the products had a lower content of this monoamine (Me = 2.59 mg/kg), which increased systematically during storage. Samples taken at 2 °C after 48 h showed an average histamine content of 4.4 mg/kg, while products stored at 22 °C at the same time showed a 1.8-fold higher concentration of this monoamine (Me = 7.9 mg/kg). Dishes containing tuna and sea fish had higher histamine levels on average than those containing pollock. The storage conditions of the children’s food had a significant effect on histamine concentration. The level of histamine in baby foods was related to the amount and type of fish in certain products. The results indicate the need for increased awareness of the risks associated with histamine, especially in a group of people with increased sensitivity to this amine, which may include infants and young children.

On the Issue of Cattle Necrobacteriosis in Lenkoran Farms

The study of various epizootological conditions for necrobacteriosis and the factors that cause it is relevant. The research was carried out on the basis of the Department of Veterinary and Agricultural Disciplines of Lenkoran State University in disadvantaged livestock farms. Microscopic studies have established that the main causative agent of hoof disease in cows is Bacterium necrophorum. As experimental observations have shown, recovered animals remain carriers of the pathogen for a long time. In an experiment on two experimental subjects and one control group, it was proven that for the manifestation of clinical signs and relapses of necrobacteriosis, a necessary condition was an increase in skin looseness, making it susceptible to Fusobacterium necrophorum. This is possible with high humidity and injury, as well as in the absence of preventive treatments for the hooves. Swelling of the corolla associated with aseptic osteitis manifested itself against the background of a concentrated type of feeding. Such changes in the hooves are characteristic of an increased intake of histamine into the body, which is abundant in the shells of grains. For treatment, the use of the antibacterial drug Amoxicillin-150, at the rate of 1 ml per 10 kg of live weight, once intramuscularly or subcutaneously, is advisable and cost-effective.

Monitoring and risk assessment of biogenic amines in Korean commercial fermented seasonings

Fermented seasonings are widely used in Korean cuisine; however, some contain high levels of biogenic amines (BAs). In this study, in order to estimate the potential BA risk from fermented seasoning, the BA contents in 50 commercial brands (n = 292) of five seasonings (soy sauce, Gochujang, Doenjang, Ssamjang, and Cheonggukjang) and their changes due to different cooking methods were evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography. The risk assessment for consumer exposure was evaluated by computing the estimated daily intake (EDI), histamine (HIS) intake, and tyramine (TYR) intake. Maximum contents of HIS detected in Cheonggukjang, soy sauce, Doenjang, and Ssamjang were 318.46, 148.15, 123.65, and 114.07 mg/kg, respectively. However, even in the worst-case scenario, the EDI value and HIS intake results demonstrated that the seasonings had a limited impact on the risk of HIS poisoning due to their low consumption. Cheonggukjang exhibited the highest TYR content (312.89 mg/kg), and the TYR exposure results implied that those taking classical antidepressant monoamine oxidase inhibitors should pay attention to Cheonggukjang. After stir-frying, the total BA retentions in soy sauce and Gochujang were only 51.45% and 57.08%, respectively, which may be caused by high temperature. Based on the results of this study, the five seasonings contained various BAs, which can be influenced by the cooking process, and all five seasonings are safe for the general population in terms of the risk of BAs.

The Use of DAO as a Marker for Histamine Intolerance: Measurements and Determinants in a Large Random Population-Based Survey.

Histamine intolerance (HIT) is a common adverse reaction to food where elimination and reintroduction of histamine-rich food is part of the investigation. Analysis of the enzyme diamine oxidase (DAO) is sometimes used as an additional tool for diagnosis. This study aimed to describe the distribution of DAO in a large representative cohort of adults and to determine the association between DAO activity and possible associated factors. The study is based on the population-based West Sweden Asthma Study and includes 1051 subjects. Subjects underwent structured interviews including questions on demography, asthma, allergy symptoms, and lifestyle factors. Subjects were assessed for specific-IgE-antibodies and measurement of DAO activity in serum. Previously suggested cut-off levels for low values (<3 U/mL), normal values (>10 U/mL), and median levels of DAO were used. In the group of 1051 subjects, only a few presented reactions upon histamine intake, whereas 44% presented DAO levels below the suggested normal cut-off levels. BMI and age were shown to have an impact on DAO activity among women with increasing activity of DAO with increasing BMI and age. Among men, only increasing age was seen to have an impact on DAO levels. There was no difference in DAO levels with different sensitization status to common foods or airborne allergens. No association between DAO levels and reported symptoms to histamine-rich foods could be found. In conclusion, the determination of the DAO enzyme needs to be re-evaluated and may not be used as a valuable tool for histamine intolerance using current cut-off values. Further studies are needed to improve the use of DAO as a biomarker for histamine intolerance.

Application of sensor analysis methodology in fish snacks technology for express bars with regulated histamine content

The object of research is the technology of fish snacks for express bars with a regulated histamine content for the rational correction of certain diets of the population. One of the most problematic places in the technology of fish fermented products is the accumulation of biogenic amines with toxic properties. An increased intake of histamine can cause the so-called «histamine» migraine (Horton's syndrome), headache (Harris' neuralgia, characterized by pain in the eyes, forehead, temporal part of the head, lacrimation, inflammation of the nasal mucosa) and other symptoms, including the gastrointestinal tract, sweat, increased secretion of gastric juice, increased heart rate, and decreased diastolic (lower) blood pressure. In addition, the appearance, namely the shape and color of snacks, reduces the attractiveness of snack products. In the course of the study, methods of sensory analysis, standard methods for studying physical and chemical quality indicators were used. The chosen methodology makes it possible to timely correct technological processes for the production of fish snacks to obtain high-quality, safe food products with a harmonic sensory profile, as well as to control the accumulation of biogenic amines. The obtained results of the research conducted allow to state that the proposed technological methods and the developed ingredient composition of the mince mixture in the production of snacks contribute to the expansion of the range of snack products for a healthy diet with high consumer properties that provide an attractive appearance, safety, and biological value. This is due to the fact that the consumer preferences for shape, color, usefulness and safety taken into account made it possible, based on the methodology of sensory analysis, to scientifically substantiate the choice of raw materials, form requirements for the appearance of finished products and containers used for packaging snacks. The main raw material for the production of snacks is fish from inland waters of Ukraine with a low-active enzymatic system and, accordingly, a small amount of low-molecular volatile substances involved in the formation of odor. The production process ensures a high sanitary level and the use of consumer packaging of small capacity, which meets the modern requirements of visitors to express bars. In addition, natural biopolymers of plant origin have been introduced into the recipe composition of the minced mixture, which allow to control the process of accumulation of biogenic amines.

IMG-07. Contralateral transient contrast enhancement in a patient with IDH1wt MGMT promoter-methylated GBM responding to TMZ and individualized multimodal immunotherapy

Abstract Immunotherapy-induced MRI changes remain challenging when treating GBM patients with immunotherapy as part of a combined treatment. The iRANO criteria provide a decision-tree in order to avoid over- and under-treatment reactions when contrast-enhancing lesions become visible and should be interpreted. We report a 34-year female, 34 weeks pregnant, who presented with epilepsy, and was diagnosed with IDH1wt MGMT promoter-methylated GBM after biopsy. On MRI, the left occipital lesion was mostly cystic-necrotic with peripheral contrast enhancement, and crossed over the corpus callosum to the right. The volume was calculated as 64 cm³ (abc/2 formula). She was treated with radiochemotherapy and 12 TMZm cycles. Within each TMZ cycle 5 days of immunogenic cell death (ICD) therapy (5 injections with Newcastle Disease Virus and 5 sessions of modulated electrohyperthermia (Oncotherm 50 min 40-60 Watt) was added at days 8 to 12. After all chemo-/ICD-therapy we continued with active specific immunotherapy: two autologous mature monocyte-derived dendritic cell vaccines loaded with ICD therapy-induced serum-derived antigenic extracellular microvesicles and apoptotic bodies (IO-Vac®). One month after the second IO-Vac®, 17 months after diagnosis, a temporal right FLAIR-visible region showed expansion, and three months later also diffuse contrast enhancement, which was confirmed in a control scan one month later. The original tumor was meanwhile reduced to 16 cm³. However, in the last available scan, two months after the former, the contrast enhancement was disappeared, and the pathologic area on FLAIR was diminished. The original tumor size was reduced to 2 cm³, two year after first diagnosis. She showed allergic skin reactions to TMZ, which was covered with systemic histamine intake. There were no side effects related to multimodal immunotherapy. Transient MRI changes can be observed even in distance from the original tumor and can be interpreted as immune-mediated effects when the original tumor is responding.

Histidine and Humans Disease

Background: Histidine is an important amino acid with important properties that enable it to play a vital part in many activities in the human body, such as proton buffering, metal ion chelation, scavenging of reactive oxygen and nitro-gen species, erythropoiesis and the histaminergic system. This review presents the impact of histidine level fluctuation on the body function, the physiological role and metabolic pathway of histidine in various parts of the human's body. Also, we investigated that histamine produc-tion by Histidine decarboxylase gene and there is relationship between histidine food intake and level of Histamine in blood, which resulting in the obesity, anemia and other nutrition issues. In addition, a neurotrans-mitter is included oin histamine that is widely distributed throughout the human brain; its deficiency could cause problems in the nervous system. This study revealed that deficiency of histidine contributed to mental problems like Parkinson's disease (PD), schizophrenia (SCZ), kidney and prion disease as well. As a result, histidine is important to keep hu-man body healthy, and it is also found that hisidine is used as a suitable drug for people who have schizophrenia. This review revealed that the correlation between histamine and asthma is still not well understood. So, this review will open way for researchers to focuses on this aspect. Keywords: Histidine, Histamine, physiological role, Parkinson's disease and human disease

Contamination of smoked fish and smoked-dried fish with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and biogenic amines and risk assessment for the Beninese consumers

The present study aims to assess the contamination of smoked and smoked-dried fish sampled on Beninese market with biogenic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Fifteen PAHs, ten biogenic amines and nineteen amino acids were analysed in thirty-six fish samples, using liquid chromatography techniques. The assessment of consumer exposure was carried out by calculating the estimated daily intake (EDI) which was compared to a toxicological reference value. The exposure to histamine, the most toxic biogenic amine, was calculated and compared with an acute reference dose (ARfD) of 50 mg/meal. The margin of exposure (MOE) to PAHs was calculated as the ratio between benchmark PAH levels and EDI. MOE to carcinogenic compounds below 10,000 indicates a potential concern for human health. Amino-acid profile varied as a function of fish species with a high content of histidine (the precursor of histamine) recorded in Cypselurus cyanopterus, the Atlantic flying fish (2.9 g/100 g, dry weight) followed by Scomber scombrus, the Atlantic mackerel (1.9 g/100 g, dry weight). High histamine concentration (4,384.2 mg/kg) was recorded in one sample of C. cyanopterus, a non-scombroid fish, exceeding 44 times the maximal limit of 100 mg/kg, set by the EU and Benin regulations. Histamine intake calculated using the maximum measured histamine concentration exceeded the ARfD. Concerning the PAH contamination, none of the smoked and smoked-dried fish samples were compliant with the EU regulation, and the MOE of the consumers were below 10,000 (for both median and maximum PAH contamination levels). In conclusion, the consumption of smoked and smoked-dried fish could represent a major concern for the Beninese consumer health because of both histamine and PAHs contamination.

The Impact of Food Histamine Intake on Asthma Activity: A Pilot Study.

Asthma is a complex chronic inflammatory disorder. Diet’s impact on asthma symptoms is controversial. The objective of this pilot crossover, randomized, two-period study was to examine the effect of dietary histamine intake on asthma symptoms in twenty-one children with mild intermittent asthma. Children were randomly assigned to either a high- or low-histamine diet, based on the Mediterranean pattern, for 4 weeks. After a 2-week washout period, patients crossed to the alternative diet for 4 additional weeks. Asthma symptoms were assessed at baseline and after the completion of each diet period by a clinician. Daily symptoms and peak flow were recorded throughout the intervention. Adherence to the dietary intervention was assessed via analysis of four random 24-h recalls, for each intervention period. Eighteen children completed the study. Significantly higher mean air flow obstruction was recorded and a trend for prolonged and more severe symptoms was observed during the high-histamine period. Diet may have an active and direct impact on asthma symptoms. Food choice is affected and/or may affect symptoms in children with mild asthma. Diet intervention is promising yet challenging, for asthma control.

Biogenic amine and microbiological profile of Serbian dry fermented sausages of artisanal and industrial origin and associated health risk

ABSTRACTFrom the public health point of view, safety of dry fermented sausages is of concern due to possible presence of biogenic amines and some other food hazards. Taking into consideration that biogenic amines are chemical indicators of microbiological contamination, industrial and artisanal dry fermented sausages produced in Serbia were subjected to the microbiological and biogenic amine profiling. Microorganisms identified by MALDI-TOF MS included Cronobacter sakazakii and Listeria innocua, whereas the food pathogens were not detected. Biogenic amine content, determined by HPLC method in the range from 37.3 to 1186 mg/kg, was characterised as very low to low in 40% of the samples, moderate in 38%, high in 14% and very high in 8%. Risk assessment revealed that consumption of dry fermented sausages could cause histamine and tyramine intake up to 11.9% and 3.4% of threshold dose for healthy population, respectively. Adverse health effects would be rather unlikely for general population.

Diamine Oxidase Supplementation in Chronic Spontaneous Urticaria: A Randomized, Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Study

Introduction: Diamine oxidase (DAO) catabolizes and inactivates histamine, a key player in a wide range of invalidating conditions, such as migraine and chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU). The highest expression of DAO occurs in the gastrointestinal tract, possibly to control the burden of histamine intake from food. Methods: Here, we tested the hypothesis that a 30-day oral supplementation with DAO (1 capsule b.i.d., 15 min before a meal) could reduce the severity of CSU as estimated by the 7-Day Urticaria Activity Score (UAS-7). The study was designed as a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover investigation of 22 patients with CSU incompletely controlled by first-line antihistamine therapy. Results: Twenty patients completed the study. Supplemental therapy with DAO caused a 3.8 ± 1.2 point mean ± SEM UAS-7 score reduction in patients with low serum DAO levels at time 0 (p = 0.041 compared to placebo). The degree of UAS-7 improvement was inversely correlated with the levels of basal DAO (p = 0.019). Patients receiving DAO supplementation were able to slightly reduce their daily antihistamine dose (p = 0.049). Conclusion: These data suggest that DAO may be involved in the pathogenic cascade of CSU and that DAO supplementation could be effective for symptom relief in patients with low DAO levels in serum.

Tyramine and histamine risk assessment related to consumption of dry fermented sausages by the Spanish population

Tyramine and histamine are the main dietary bioactive amines related to acute adverse health effects. Dry fermented sausages can easily accumulate high levels of these hazards and are frequently consumed in Spain. The present work aims to assess the exposure to tyramine and histamine from the consumption of dry fermented sausages by the Spanish population and to assess the risk to suffer acute health effects from this exposure. A probabilistic estimation of the exposure to these hazards was derived combining probability distributions of these amines in dry fermented sausages (n = 474) and their consumption by the Spanish population. The mean dietary exposure to tyramine and histamine was 6.2 and 1.39 mg/meal, respectively. The risk of suffering hypertensive crisis or histamine intoxication by healthy population due to tyramine or histamine intake, respectively, exclusively from dry fermented sausages, can be considered negligible. For individuals under treatment with MAOI drugs, the probability to surpass the safe threshold dose (6 mg/meal) was estimated as 34%. For patients with histamine intolerance, even the presence of this amine in food is not tolerable and it could be estimated that 7000 individuals per million could be at risk to suffer the related symptoms after consuming dry fermented sausages.

46-Year-Old Man With Abdominal Pain and Hypotension

Resident in Internal Medicine, Mayo School of Graduate Medical Education, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL (O.A.W., D.F.S.); Adviser to residents and Consultant in Hospital Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL (N.L.D.). A 46-year-old man with a history of type 2 diabetes, tetralogy of Fallot, and a bioprosthetic pulmonary valve replacement presented to the emergency department feeling generally unwell after eating a meal at a restaurant. The patient was in his usual state of health until starting dinner at the restaurant. The meal included cooked seafood, which consisted of different types of fish, shrimp, and scallops. A few minutes into his meal, he was overtaken by a sudden onset of severe back pain and cramping that radiated to his abdomen, mainly in the periumbilical region. He rated the pain as 8 of 10 on the severity scale. The pain was followed by progressively worsening dizziness and blurry vision. He also experienced intense palpitations, giving him the sensation of “wanting to pass out.” The patient had no known allergies to fish, seafood, or iodine. He had never experienced any of these symptoms before. None of his colleagues who ate with him had any similar symptoms. He had not recently traveled. On arrival at the emergency department, he became nauseated and vomited 6 times. He appeared to be moderately distressed. He was afebrile, his heart rate was 115 beats/min, and his blood pressure was 78/ 56 mm Hg. Physical examination yielded unremarkable findings except for erythema on his cheeks and mild wheezing on pulmonary examination. Laboratory tests, including complete blood cell count, metabolic profile, and liver function tests, revealed normal values except for a lactate level of 2.1 mmol/L (reference range, 0.6-2.3 mmol/L). Electrocardiography detected sinus tachycardia, and computed tomography of the abdomen with contrast medium revealed diffuse small-bowel wall thickening, edema, and mesenteric fluid with engorgement of the vasa recta. He was admitted to the hospital for further evaluation and treatment.

Serum diamine oxidase activity as a diagnostic test for histamine intolerance

Histamine intolerance (HIT) is characterized by an imbalance between histamine intake and the capacity for histamine degradation. The main enzyme for metabolizing ingested histamine is diamine oxidase (DAO). Determining DAO activity in serum may be useful in diagnosing HIT. Over a period of 3.5 years we recruited 316 subjects with clinically suspected HIT and 55 healthy controls. Serum DAO activity was measured with a quantitative enzyme immunoassay. Twenty patients with highly reduced DAO activity went on a histamine-free diet for 6-12 months. Afterwards, their DAO activity was determined again. We found that DAO activity was significantly lower in patients than in healthy control subjects (P < 0.0001). Furthermore, 54 patients had highly reduced serum DAO activity (< 40HDU/ml). Their main symptoms involved the skin, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system, and eyes. In all the 20 patients with highly reduced DAO activity, the main clinical symptoms typical of histamine intolerance disappeared after they adopted a histamine-free diet. Furthermore, the serum DAO activity values measured increased significantly (P < 0.0001). Our results suggest that determining DAO activity in serum is a useful tool in diagnosing HIT. Furthermore, our results showed the benefit of a histamine-free diet because after the diet the majority of symptoms disappeared and the serum DAO activity significantly increased.

Lack of Association of Plasma Histamine with Diamine Oxidase in Chronic Idiopathic Urticaria

BackgroundChronic idiopathic urticaria (CIU) is considered a complex and multifactorial disease. Excessive histamine intake may induce an attack of urticaria. The main enzyme for histamine metabolism is diamine oxidase (DAO).ObjectivePlasma histamine concentrations and DAO activities were evaluated to determine whether there are abnormalities in the histamine metabolism of CIU patients.MethodsSeventy-five CIU patients and twenty-five healthy control subjects were included in the study. Blood was taken from all subjects to measure plasma levels of the histamine and DAO.ResultsMean plasma histamine levels were significantly higher in CIU patients (11.59±10.98 nM) than in the control subjects (8.75±2.55 nM) (p=0.04). Mean DAO activities were lower in patients of CIU (80.86±26.81 histamine degrading unit [HDU]/ml) than in the controls (81.60±9.67 HDU/ml), but without significant difference. In 15 CIU patients with gastrointestinal symptoms, the mean histamine concentration was higher (12.43±7.97 nM) and DAO activity was lower (77.93±27.53 HDU/ml) than in the remaining 60 CIU patients without gastrointestinal symptoms (11.38±11.67 nM and 81.58±26.82 HDU/ml), without significant difference. The relationship between DAO activity and plasma histamine concentrations showed a significant negative linear value (p=0.001). There were no significant relationships between plasma histamine concentrations and symptom severity score.ConclusionIn CIU patients, a high plasma histamine concentration may not be explained by DAO activity. CIU patients with gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms showed no significantly lower DAO activity. Larger group studies are required to elucidate the relationship between plasma histamine concentrations and DAO activity, especially of CIU patients with GI symptomsto understand the difference in CIU patients with and without GI symptoms.

The Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) database in support of risk analysis of biogenic amines in food

In the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) database, an exchange information tool on risk measures related to food and feed controls, notifications concerning the presence of biogenic amines in food are mainly histamine in fish products. This reflects the current EU legislation which sets food safety criteria for histamine in certain fish products. Average histamine concentrations in about 300 notifications between 2002 and 2010 were below 200mg/kg fish product in 17%, between 200 and 500mg/kg in 36%, between 500 and 1000mg/kg in 16%, between 1000 and 2000mg/kg in 12% and above 2000mg/kg in 11% of notifications. A high variability of histamine concentrations in different samples originating from the same fish product of up to a factor of 500 was reported. RASFF introduced ‘Food poisoning’ as a reason for notification in 2008 and reported around 60 negatively affected consumers due to dietary histamine intake until the end of 2010. Based on the evolution and development of notifications in the RASFF database, it can be anticipated that these data will increasingly provide valuable ‘real-life’ and ‘up to date’ evidence to support food safety risk analysis in the future.

Serum diamine oxidase (DAO) activity as a diagnostic test for histamine intolerance

Background Histamine intolerance (HIT) is characterized by an imbalance between histamine intake and the capacity for histamine degradation. The main enzyme for metabolizing ingested histamine is diamine oxidase (DAO). Determining DAO activity in serum may be useful in diagnosing HIT.

Histamine 50-Skin-Prick Test: A Tool to Diagnose Histamine Intolerance

Background. Histamine intolerance results from an imbalance between histamine intake and degradation. In healthy persons, dietary histamine can be sufficiently metabolized by amine oxidases, whereas persons with low amine oxidase activity are at risk of histamine toxicity. Diamine oxidase (DAO) is the key enzyme in degradation. Histamine elicits a wide range of effects. Histamine intolerance displays symptoms, such as rhinitis, headache, gastrointestinal symptoms, palpitations, urticaria and pruritus. Objective. Diagnosis of histamine intolerance until now is based on case history; neither a validated questionnaire nor a routine test is available. It was the aim of this trial to evaluate the usefullness of a prick-test for the diagnosis of histamine intolerance. Methods. Prick-testing with 1% histamine solution and wheal size-measurement to assess the relation between the wheal in prick-test, read after 20 to 50 minutes, as sign of slowed histamine degradation as well as history and symptoms of histamine intolerance. Results. Besides a pretest with 17 patients with HIT we investigated 156 persons (81 with HIT, 75 controls): 64 out of 81 with histamine intolerance(HIT), but only 14 out of 75 persons from the control-group presented with a histamine wheal ≥3 mm after 50 minutes (P < .0001). Conclusion and Clinical Relevance. Histamine-50 skin-prickt-test offers a simple tool with relevance.

Assessment of alimentary histamine exposure of consumers in Austria and development of tolerable levels in typical foods

Although alimentary intake of histamine can cause intoxication, legal limits for histamine content in the EU, exist for certain seafish species only. The present study suggests tolerable levels for fermented sausage, fish and cheese which are based on relating the amount of histamine not expected to cause any health effects after ingestion to typically consumed amounts of food. Limits of 500 and 400 mg/kg would seem to be justifiable for fermented sausage and cheese, respectively. For fish species other than those already regulated in EU, the “m”/”M” limits of 100 and 200 mg/kg can be adopted. These limits can be met by current food technology.