Instructional Design Guidelines Research Articles

Instructional design using an in-house built teaching assistant robot to enhance elementary school English-as-a-foreign-language learning

This paper presents a design for a cutting-edge English program in which elementary school learners of English as a foreign language in Taiwan had lively interactions with a teaching assistant robot. Three dimensions involved in the design included (1) a pleasant and interactive classroom environment as the learning context, (2) a teaching assistant robot designed and built by the researchers as instructional technology (instructional tool/medium), and (3) the need for improved motivation and learning outcomes and positive learning experiences of the students as the core research problem. This Human–Robot Interaction (HRI) led to better pedagogical effects on learning and teaching by (1) employing a vivid, enjoyable teaching approach; (2) adopting practical, interesting learning materials; and (3) creating a natural, enjoyable learning context. Both quantitative and qualitative findings of this study indicate that the students' English learning experiences were enhanced, as were their motivation and learning outcomes as a result of this HRI. This paper, instead of merely suggesting design criteria for robots, provides a set of instructional design guidelines that other researchers can follow to create an innovative and enjoyable English classroom that employs an interactive robot as an assistant for enhancing English acquisition while simultaneously reducing the pressure and teaching load of the English instructors.

Towards Cognitive Load Theory as Guideline for Instructional Design in Science Education

We applied cognitive load theory in an heuristic out-of-school science lesson. The lesson comprises experimentsconcerning major attributes of NaCl and was designed for 5th to 8th grade students. Our interest focused on wethercognitive load theory provides sufficient guidelines for instructional design in the field of heuristic science education.We extracted student clusters derived from pre-knowledge and learning success. We characterised students, based oncognitive achievement, mental effort, and instructional efficiency. Cluster analyses revealed three student clusterswith quite satisfying results. Two further clusters showed improvable results, two showed no learning success, whichmay point to difficulties in coping with the learning setting. Motivational characterisation will refine the results, andmay confirm starting points to advance cognitive load theory in heuristic science education.

Problem‐Based Learning: A Learning Environment for Enhancing Learning Transfer

AbstractThis chapter provides a conceptual foundation and rationale, as well as instructional design guidelines, for using problem‐based learning (PBL) to enhance adult learners' learning transfer.

Technology Mapping: An Approach for Developing Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Technology mapping ™ is proposed as an approach for developing technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK). The study discusses in detail instructional design guidelines in relation to the enactment of TM, and reports on empirical findings from a study with 72 pre-service primary teachers within the context of teaching them how to teach with Excel. Repeated Measures MANOVA findings showed that TM was effective and efficient in developing TPCK competencies; however, development of TPCK competencies was directly related to the complexity of the design task, as this was determined by the educational affordances of Excel.

The Influence of Cognitive Load on Transfer With Error Prevention Training Methods

The objective was to conduct research synthesis for the U.S.Army on the effectiveness of two error prevention training strategies (training wheels and scaffolding) on the transfer of training. Motivated as part of an ongoing program of research on training effectiveness, the current work presents some of the program's research into the effects on transfer of error prevention strategies during training from a cognitive load perspective. Based on cognitive load theory, two training strategies were hypothesized to reduce intrinsic load by supporting learners early in acquisition during schema development. A transfer ratio and Hedges' g were used in the two meta-analyses conducted on transfer studies employing the two training strategies. Moderators relevant to cognitive load theory and specific to the implemented strategies were examined.The transfer ratio was the ratio of treatment transfer performance to control transfer. Hedges' g was used in comparing treatment and control group standardized mean differences. Both effect sizes were analyzed with versions of sample weighted fixed effect models. Analysis of the training wheels strategy suggests a transfer benefit. The observed benefit was strongest when the training wheels were a worked example coupled with a principle-based prompt. Analysis of the scaffolding data also suggests a transfer benefit for the strategy. Both training wheels and scaffolding demonstrated positive transfer as training strategies.As error prevention techniques, both support the intrinsic load--reducing implications of cognitive load theory. The findings are applicable to the development of instructional design guidelines in professional skill-based organizations such as the military.

A pedagogical framework for mobile learning: Categorizing educational applications of mobile technologies into four types

Instructional designers and educators recognize the potential of mobile technologies as a learning tool for students and have incorporated them into the distance learning environment. However, little research has been done to categorize the numerous examples of mobile learning in the context of distance education, and few instructional design guidelines based on a solid theoretical framework for mobile learning exist. In this paper I compare mobile learning (m-learning) with electronic learning (e-learning) and ubiquitous learning (u-learning) and describe the technological attributes and pedagogical affordances of mobile learning presented in previous studies. I modify transactional distance (TD) theory and adopt it as a relevant theoretical framework for mobile learning in distance education. Furthermore, I attempt to position previous studies into four types of mobile learning: 1) high transactional distance socialized m-learning, 2) high transactional distance individualized m-learning, 3) low transactional distance socialized m-learning, and 4) low transactional distance individualized m-learning. As a result, this paper can be used by instructional designers of open and distance learning to learn about the concepts of mobile learning and how mobile technologies can be incorporated into their teaching and learning more effectively.

Cognitive load theory in health professional education: design principles and strategies

Cognitive load theory aims to develop instructional design guidelines based on a model of human cognitive architecture. The architecture assumes a limited working memory and an unlimited long-term memory holding cognitive schemas; expertise exclusively comes from knowledge stored as schemas in long-term memory. Learning is described as the construction and automation of such schemas. Three types of cognitive load are distinguished: intrinsic load is a direct function of the complexity of the performed task and the expertise of the learner; extraneous load is a result of superfluous processes that do not directly contribute to learning, and germane load is caused by learning processes that deal with intrinsic cognitive load. This paper discusses design guidelines that will decrease extraneous load, manage intrinsic load and optimise germane load. Fifteen design guidelines are discussed. Extraneous load can be reduced by the use of goal-free tasks, worked examples and completion tasks, by integrating different sources of information, using multiple modalities, and by reducing redundancy. Intrinsic load can be managed by simple-to-complex ordering of learning tasks and working from low- to high-fidelity environments. Germane load can be optimised by increasing variability over tasks, applying contextual interference, and evoking self-explanation. The guidelines are also related to the expertise reversal effect, indicating that design guidelines for novice learners are different from guidelines for more experienced learners. Thus, well-designed instruction for novice learners is different from instruction for more experienced learners. Applications in health professional education and current research lines are discussed.

Instructional Design Rules for Algorithmic Subject Matter

Algorithms are essential to computer programming because of their structure and precision. These same characteristics could also be used in the field of instructional technology, but usually aren't because they are viewed as being too complex. This article attempts to clarify their utility by first analyzing the structural and processing characteristics of algorithms. Simple examples are used to illustrate how the design process is influenced by these characteristics. Five instructional design guidelines, or rules, are then presented and discussed. The rules are derived from empirical examinations of algorithm-based learning and conform to the limitations dictated by several information processing principles.

A Reconsideration of Cognitive Load Theory

Cognitive load theory has been very influential in educational psychology during the last decade in providing guidelines for instructional design. Whereas numerous empirical studies have used it as a theoretical framework, a closer analysis reveals some fundamental conceptual problems within the theory. Various generalizations of empirical findings become questionable because the theory allows different and contradicting possibilities to explain some empirical results. The article investigates these theoretical problems by analyzing the conceptual distinctions between different kinds of cognitive load. It emphasizes that reduction of cognitive load can sometimes impair learning rather than enhancing it. Cognitive load theory is reconsidered both from the perspective of Vygotski’s concept of the zone of proximal development and from the perspective of research on implicit learning. Task performance and learning are considered as related, but nevertheless fundamentally different processes. Conclusions are drawn for the further development of the theory as well as for empirical research and instructional practice.

Improving Distance Courses: Understanding Teacher Trainees and Their Learning Styles for the Design of Teacher Training Courses and Materials at a Distance.

Literature on distance education and teacher education seems to show that what we do not know about Distance Teacher Trainees 1 ( DTT ) and their learning process involved exceeds what we know about it. As more DTT enroll in distance education programmes globally, distance education providers and institutions will witness trainees coming with different backgrounds and experiences begin to take advantage of this learning opportunities. One important variable in the effectiveness of distance learning is the preference of the distance learner for a particular learning mode. A key to maintaining distance learners participation in learning lies in understanding the Learning Styles Preferences ( LSP ) and the processes involved. This is also true for teacher training. There is much greater variation in the range of LSP and how to address them when preparing distance training materials and courses. The primary purpose of this paper is to propose ways in which individual learning differences should be accommodated when designing instructional learning materials in print for DTTs. Kolb’s ( 1984 )model on learning cycle and styles are discussed to provide instructional design guidelines which accommodate each stage of the learning cycles and individual differences between DTT in processing and presenting information and knowledge. In addition, issues on teacher education, distance learning, individual differences, and ways in which the ‘differences’ can be accommodated when designing learning materials for DTT are also discussed. This paper resonates the idea and belief that if attempts are made to match learning styles of DTTs and andragogy with content to be learned, distance teacher educators ( DTEs )and instructors can develop better instructional materials with greater prospects of success. Getting to know and understand the teacher trainees and their learning process involved must first be addressed to facilitate the diverse needs of the Malaysian teacher trainees.

Supporting the Analysis Phase of Team Training Design

With respect to team training, traditional instructional design (ID) guidelines, mainly aimed at training at the individual level, seem to be insufficient given the different nature and characteristics of teams and team performance. In order to provide adequate support, guidelines have been developed supporting the analysis of team tasks. The aim of this quasi-experiment was to measure the effect of two versions of guidelines on the quality of the ID process. This was achieved by combining several methods of data collection and qualitative analysis. This paper discusses an approach to the empirical validation of the ID guidelines and the implications for further research on ID for team training.

Developing science students’ metacognitive problem solving skills online

<span>Technology is increasingly being harnessed to improve the quality of learning in science subjects at university level. This article sets out, by incorporating notions drawn from constructivist and adult learning theory, a foundation for the design of an online environment for the acquisition of metacognitive problem solving skills. The capacity to solve problems is one of the generic skills now being promoted at tertiary level, yet for many learners problem-solving remains a difficulty. In addition, there are few instances of instructional design guidelines for developing learning environments to support the metacognitive skills for effective problem solving. In order to foster the processes of metacognitive skills explicitly in first year science students, we investigated areas where cognitive support was needed. The aim was to strengthen the metacognitive and reflective skills of students to assist them in adopting strategies and reflective processes that enabled them to define, plan and self monitor their thinking during problem solving. In tertiary science, both well-structured and ill-structured problems are encountered by students, thus a repertoire of skills must be fostered. A model for supporting metacognitive skills for problem solving is presented in the context of an online environment being developed at the University of New England.</span>

Book Review: Faculty Guide for Moving Teaching and Learning to the Web

Faculty Guide for Moving Teaching and Learning to the Web by Judith Boettcher and Rita-Marie Conrad. League for Innovation in the Community College, Mission Viejo, California (www.leaguestore.org). 1999, 136 pages, $25.00 Paper. Reviewed by Saundra Wall Williams. Web-based teaching and are changing the face of higher education and rapidly becoming commonplace in institutions of higher learning. Web-based courses are being developed at a rapid pace, and faculty are working at a frenzied pace to develop the skills needed to instruct in an on-line environment. These new demands are creating instructional challenges for faculty. In the Faculty Guide for Moving Teaching and Learning to the Web, Boettcher and Conrad provide a comprehensive guide for faculty on concepts related to moving teaching and to an interactive and collaborative Web-based environment. Instead of presenting a how-to book on Web-based instruction, the authors focus on integrating technological concepts with teaching and learning. In addition, the authors introduce issues and perspectives for the future surrounding teaching and via the Web. Boettcher, the executive director of the Corporation for Research and Educational Networking, and Conrad, an on-line instructor at Florida State University, have assembled a comprehensive monograph about Webbased teaching and learning. These authors have developed the eleven chapters of this monograph so that it can be divided into three parts: theory, practice, and implications for higher education. The three chapters offer the framework for the monograph by exploring the theoretical principles behind teaching and in a Web-based environment. Chapters 4 through 9 offer practical methods and processes for moving teaching and to the Web. The concluding two chapters explore implications and the future for higher education by discussing the issues of teaching and in a Web environment. Chapter 1 introduces the reader to the Web by presenting a brief history of the Internet. This chapter also focuses on how the Internet works and how the Web developed. The purpose of this chapter is to help the reader build a conceptual understanding of the Internet and the Web infrastructure and it clarifies their usefulness for teaching and learning (P. v). Chapter 2 provides an overview of technology and change, and it gives a set of principles for the manageable use of technology. These principles assert that (1) good use of technology takes time; (2) not all technology thrives or survives; (3) continued technology growth can be assumed; and (4) people adopt innovation at different rates. This chapter focuses on the need for creating campus policies that will support the successful adoption of technology by faculty, staff, and students. This need is supported by key statistics and trend lines on the adoption of technological innovations. The Web as an emerging teaching and environment is introduced in Chapter 3. The authors describe this emergence as the first truly major shift in that has occurred in the last 500 years. It is the shift from the classroom as the primary center of organized to the Web as the primary center of instruction (p. 15). In Chapter 3, the authors clearly provide support for the concept that the basics of teaching and processes are essentially communication and dialogue processes. They use the ideas of B. F. Skinner, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky, John Dewey, and Malcolm Knowles to provide support and to reexamine and reevaluate the core processes of teaching and learning. In Chapters 4 through 9, Boettcher and Conrad address the initial planning of resources, instructional design guidelines, the development of a Web course, tools and resources needed to create a Web course, models of Web courses, and how to create and sustain an on-line community while teaching a course via the Web. …

An instructional design framework for authentic learning environments

The instructional technology community is in the midst of a philosophical shift from a behaviorist to a constructivist framework, a move that may begin to address the growing rift between formal school learning and real-life learning. One theory of learning that has the capacity to promote authentic learning is that of situated learning. The purpose of this three-part study was first, to identify critical characteristics of a situated learning environment from the extensive literature base on the subject; second, to operationalize the critical characteristics of a situated learning environment by designing a multimedia program that incorporated the identified characteristics; and third, to investigate students' perceptions of their experiences using a multimedia package based on a situated learning framework. The learning environment, for preservice teachers, comprised a multimedia program on assessment in mathematics together with recommended implementation conditions for the classroom. Eight students were observed and interviewed to explore their perceptions of the situated learning environment. Findings suggest that the use of the situated learning framework provided effective instructional design guidelines for the design of an environment for the acquisition of advanced knowledge.

Empirical Validation of Team Training ID-Guidelines

With respect to team training, traditional instructional design (ID) guidelines, mainly aimed at training at the individual level, seem to be insufficient given the different nature and characteristics of teams and team performance. In order to provide adequate support, guidelines have been developed supporting the analysis of team tasks, and the design of team training scenarios. This paper discusses an approach to the empirical validation of these guidelines and the implications for further research on ID for team training.

A distributed collaborative science learning laboratory on the internet

A Distributed Collaborative Science Learning Laboratory (DCSLL) was designed, prototyped, and pilot‐tested as the “Electrical Circuit Simulator.” This laboratory was part of a module on electricity within an introductory distance course for postsecondary students on the scientific method. The concept of DCSLL emerged from work in distance education and new technologies, cooperative/collaborative learning, and science education. Instructional design principles derived from these areas are presented, and their implementation in the DCSLL is described, followed by results from the pilot test. Analysis of the results led to the articulation of six instructional design guidelines, identified as being key to the development of such learning environments.

The implications of the research literature on learning styles for the design of instructional material

<span>An enduring question for educational research is the effect of individual differences on the efficacy of learning. Aspects of individual differences that have been much explored relate to differences in learning styles, strategies and conceptions of learning. Such differences present a profound challenge for instructional designers, as research has shown that the quality of learning material is enhanced if the material is designed to take into account learners' individual learning styles (Rasmussen, 1998; Riding & Grimley, 1999). In the context of the present research, learning style is taken to mean a consistent or habitual of mode of acquiring or imparting knowledge through study, experience or teaching (Beishuizen & Stoutjesdijk, 1999). The purpose of this article is to propose ways in which individual differences can be accommodated when designing self-instructional learning materials in print for distance learners. It is advocated that instructional designers turn to research on learning styles to inform the design of adaptive learning material. Kolb's (1984) learning cycle and associated learning styles are described with a view to providing instructional design guidelines which accommodate (i) each stage of the learning cycle (ii) individual differences between learners in processing and presenting information. Examples of learning activities for each stage of the learning cycle are provided from a tertiary bridging course for adult learners. It is recommended that in designing for a diverse student body, the research literature on learning styles can provide insights that have the potential to improve instructional design.</span>

Phonological Awareness

This article defines phonological awareness and discusses historic and contemporary research findings regarding its relation to early reading. Common misconceptions about phonological awareness are addressed. Research-based guidelines for teaching phonological awareness and phonemic awareness to all children are described. Additional instructional design guidelines are offered for teaching children with learning disabilities who are experiencing difficulties with early reading. Considerations for assessing children's phonological awareness are discussed, and descriptions of available measures are provided.

Development of Instructional Design Guidelines for Team Training Devices

Both the research data base and practical experience, indicate that engineers involved in the design and development of team training devices either have inadequate access to, or for other reasons do not typically use, human factors and instructional design principles. This paper discusses a project whose purpose is to: (1) identify team processes and characteristics which may be employed in the design of team training devices, (2) state this information in guideline form, and (3) begin the development of a taxonomy of team training design characteristics which may be used to organize the guidelines.

Instructional Design for Developing Computer-Based Learning Materials

AbstractMany individuals have recently entered the instructional software development field. Frequently these individuals are trained in computer programming and knowledgeable of the subject matter to be delivered by the computer but unskilled in instructional design. The authors address this knowledge deficiency by reviewing instructional design research and theory and relating this information to the design of computer-based instructional materials. Instructional design guidelines are offered to aid software developers in making design decisions on the macro- and micro-levels of instruction.