Institutions In Tanzania Research Articles

Students-Teachers' Professional Development during Teaching Practice in Tanzania: Experience from the Host Institutions

This study sought to explore the opportunities and challenges experienced by student-teachers during their Teaching Practice (TP) in various host institutions in Tanzania. A mixed research approach with cross-sectional survey was employed in this study. The study was carried out in Dar es Salaam, Mbeya and Morogoro regions in Tanzania. Data were collected through questionnaires and semi-structured interview. The study involved 245 participants, whereby 230 were the student-teachers, 10 heads of secondary schools, 3 primary school head teachers and 2 principals from teachers’ training colleges. The findings indicate that student-teachers received positive mentorship from host institutions through orientation on different matters before getting the direct classroom exposure. It was also found that student-teachers had a collaborative working relationship with the host institutions. Findings indicate further that student-teachers were involved in both administrative and academic activities. However, there were some challenges that faced them such as limited teaching and learning facilities, limited exposure to the use of Information, Communication and Technology (ICT) as a pedagogical tool, and the overall limited infrastructural support for their stay in various host institutions. It was also found that in some institutions, student–teachers were not trusted to handle the administrative activities. It is recommended in this study that there is a need for Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and educational stakeholders to collaborate with schools for the creation of a conducive learning environment for student-teachers.

Women’s land rights and village institutions in Tanzania

Strengthening women’s ownership of and control over land is an important development goal. This paper studies the extent of women’s land rights in rural Tanzania and how patrilineal norms affect them. We show that married women in rural Tanzania still own little land without their husbands and have limited rights over the jointly owned land. In Tanzania, an inherent tension lies in the recognition of customary laws that explicitly discriminate against women, and statutory laws that establish equal rights for men and women. Customary patrilineal practices persist. In particular, we find that firstborn sons are expected to inherit more land than firstborn daughters, and widows’ inheritance rights are affected by the gender of their children. We also find that women’s tenure security in case of divorce or inheritance is fragile. In Tanzania, village institutions play a key role in the management of land rights and the mediation of land disputes. We find that members of village institutions have more pro-women views on land rights than the average household respondent. However, using randomized vignettes to measure gender bias, we show they do not always make gender-neutral recommendations in case of land disputes.

The influence of trainees' characteristics on the transfer of entrepreneurship training: Evidence from microfinance institutions in Tanzania

AbstractWhile entrepreneurship training is essential for the growth and sustainability of enterprises, the literature identifies several challenges which contribute to insufficient transfer (application) of trained materials to enterprises. Yet, the extant literature on training transfer is inconclusive, with minimal focus on trainee personal characteristics and scarce visualization of transfer as a dimensional concept. The study addressed this gap by examining the influence of selected trainee demographics on dimensions of near, far and creative transfer of entrepreneurship training. Based on a survey of 418 trainees in Tanzanian community‐based microfinance institutions, findings reveal that, each dimension of training transfer tested was influenced by a different set of demographic determinants. It was evident that elders were less enthusiastic about near and far application of entrepreneurship training. Males perceived slightly more training transfer in far and creative domains while those with higher education levels were more likely to apply training in all transfer dimensions. Those with exposure to entrepreneurship were more convinced of the value of applying the trained skills to near and creative domains. Consequently, the study advances Andragogy by showing the contextual nature of applicability of its principles, as well as the dependence of training transfer on contextual factors surrounding trainees.

Change for performance improvement in the Tanzania Ports Authority, a public sector organization in Tanzania

PurposeThis study is about the Tanzania Ports Authority (TPA), a central institution in the country that has seen efforts towards improved performance in terms of cargo handled and revenue generated from port operations. This study identifies the actions that were taken by public institutional leaders as a result of political leadership call for performance improvements and implications therefrom for sustainable performance. It attempts to engage with both change and public value theories to make sense of TPA efforts and implications as a result.Design/methodology/approachThe study was conducted at TPA headquarters in Dar-es-Salaam and involved the management and other staff members. The study design was descriptive and exploratory. Data collection involved mostly the use of semi-structured questionnaires and review of documents.FindingsThe study reveals that the efforts to improve performance at the TPA indicate success in terms of cargo handled and revenue increases. Factors that support change and factors that impede change efforts were also identified making reference to Lewin's change theories and ADKAR (awareness, desire, knowledge, ability and reinforcement) model. The varied level of improved performance is attributed to the emphasis on change factors and the origin of change that do not give the human element the requisite concern. The quest for performance improvement in the public sector organization is also found wanting on the failure to place the requisite emphasis on public value creation both in processes set in motion and the desired outcomes. A more planned systematic change, championed or internalized within the organization by internal players, specifically TPA's management, is also proposed for a better and more consistent sustainable change in performance at TPA and possible in other public organizations.Research limitations/implicationsThe study is about an organization within a change context that is driven by the top leadership of the country. There have been studies on TPA but not as a change process and not yet after 2015 when the country witnessed a very strong leadership. According to Kets de Vries (2016), powerful leadership in Africa has had little to show and a legacy to be lauded. Therefore, there might be some relevance to contribute to the reasons why most African leadership fails, if that is the case.Practical implicationsPerformance can be achieved through change efforts that are driven by the country's top leadership when the context is right and support factors are present. What can be elusive is sustainable performance creating public value and that endures despite changes in the country's leadership, particularly when internal leadership of a public organization is not the change champion and is basically toeing a line, and the change process is not holistic. A more systemic approach to efforts to create strong organizations as opposed to strong individuals in leadership may be key to sustainable change in similar institutions in Tanzania and Africa.Originality/valueThe study is based on change management models that have gained long-term interest of both scholars and practitioners. It explores a performance-seeking initiative in a developing country's context that is driven by top country's political leadership. It is thus unique because the institutional leadership had to be in stride with national level changes that was centered on efforts to improve service delivery and to counter corruption and complacency in public institutions. It has also attempted to link change theories and public value creation in the quest for improved public performance.

Joint Research Mentoring Through the Community of Young Research Peers: A Case for a Unifying Model for Research Mentorship at Higher Learning Institutions.

BackgroundMentorship is pivotal for sustainability of a successful research culture at higher learning institutions. Various models have been proposed for provision of research mentorship in health sciences but are challenged by utilizing predominantly hierarchical mentoring, as well as being centred on one discipline or one institution. This paper describes the approach and successes of an inclusive mentorship model employed in a resource-limited setting in sub-Saharan Africa.MethodsThrough the NIH-funded Transforming Health Professions Education in Tanzania (THET) project, a consortium of three prominent health sciences higher learning institutions in Tanzania (MUHAS, CUHAS and KCMUCo) and two collaborating US institutions (UCSF and Duke University) was formed. Within THET, the Community of Young Research Peers (CYRP) was constituted, comprised two cohorts of undergraduate students and young faculty (fellows), and senior scientists. Besides mentorship and research training, fellows received funded research awards and in turn mentored undergraduate students.ResultsBy the first quarter of project year four, the number of fellows and mentored undergraduate students had increased from 12 to 24 and from 41 to 67, respectively. Fellows in the second cohort (junior fellows) included medical doctors, nurses, dentist, biomedical scientist, sociologist and education psychologist. In fostering peer-to-peer mentoring, the cross-institutional pairs of fellows from the first cohort (senior fellows) were assigned to reciprocal pairs of junior fellow mentees and took a leading role in research training. Furthermore, the senior fellows had made significant strides, including eight enrolled in PhD programmes, eight publications from mentored research projects, and six small to medium-size research grants won.ConclusionThe unifying model of research mentorship employed by the CYRP has been demonstrated as an effective model for joint research mentorship of the diverse group of young investigators from collaborating higher learning institutions in Tanzania. This model is recommended for scale-up, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.

Sustenance of the digital transformations induced by the COVID-19 pandemic response: lessons from Tanzanian public sector

PurposeThe emergency of the COVID-19 pandemic has affected organizations differently, leading to adopting alternative business operation models, including digital technologies. The rapid adoption of digital technologies during the COVID-19 pandemic demonstrates how adaptive technologies intersect with human and social institutions in potentially risky or inequitable ways. However, the sustenance of the digital transformations (DTs) induced by the COVID-19 crisis is still unclear. Thus, this study aims to evaluate the sustenance of DTs accelerated by the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic response in the Tanzanian context amid the crisis.Design/methodology/approachThe study used a qualitative approach that included a literature review and semi-structured interviews with Information and Communication Technology (ICT) personnel from selected public institutions in Tanzania. The interviews elicited interviewees’ perspectives on the following: the digital revolution that occurred during the COVID-19 outbreak; how it affects their work; and the country’s future digital landscape. Additionally, a literature analysis established and generalized the practices used by the governments during the COVID-19 crisis.FindingsThe results show that there is enormous, colossal press toward adopting digital solutions. The use of digital technologies, such as digital payments, e-commerce, telemedicine and online education, has attracted the attention of businesses and individuals in Tanzania. Consequently, the move has enabled the country to cope with the cascading impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and progressive economic recovery to achieve its development goals. Furthermore, the findings offer policy strategies for taking the induced DTs to the next level and sustaining it.Originality/valueThis study reports the lessons from the DTs induced by COVID-19 and their sustenance. It also contributes toward forward-thinking reforms and policy measures that could help Tanzania and the likes harness the DTs'’ potential in the wake of the pandemic.

SHARI’AH COMPLIANCE ISSUES IN THE PRACTICES OF MURABAHAH FINANCING PRODUCTS OFFERED BY BANKING INSTITUTIONS IN TANZANIA

Islamic banking industry in Tanzania began in 2008. Currently, it has several banking institutions with Islamic banking windows and one full-fledged Islamic bank. In this industry, Murabahah has been used in most of the financing products. Therefore, this paper discusses and analyses the Shari’ah compliant issues in the practices of Murabahah financing products offered by banking institutions in Tanzania and proposes the ways forward. The findings of this paper revealed that there are several Shari’ah problems such as charging of application fees, use of conventional insurance, uncertainty of agency contract and ownership of the commodity for sale. This happens due to absence of Islamic banking legal and regulatory framework, weaknesses in the banking institutions, and commitment of the people. The methodology adopted in this paper is based on qualitative and descriptive approaches, review, and analysis of authoritative and non-authoritative legal and Shari’ah sources, as well as observations. The study recommends for the establishment of Islamic banking legal and regulatory framework, adoption of guidelines for Murabahah financing, and enhancement of the Shari’ah Boards performance. Moreover, knowledge on the essence of Shari’ah compliance should be disseminated to the people, and Tawarruq Commodity Murabahah financing to meet the need for cash money should be introduced.

A Descriptive Study of Infrastructure Capabilities for Digital Records Preservation among Selected Public Institutions in Tanzania

In this paper, results of a descriptive study on institutional infrastructure capabilities for preserving digital records are presented. The study was carried out at Records and Archives Management Department (RAMD) and Registration, Insolvency and Trusteeship Agency (RITA). Informing the study, two research questions were in consideration: How capable are RAMD and RITA in terms of infrastructure capabilities for preserving digital records? What infrastructural challenges RAMD and RITA contend in preserving digital records? A multiple case studies and mixed research approaches were used. The study population comprised of 290 staff members, 75 from RAMD and 215 from RITA. A sample of 74 middle and lower level officers and 13 senior staff were purposively and randomly selected respectively. Data were collected through key informant’s face to face interview and questionnaire. Results indicate that RAMD and RITA have relatively advanced infrastructure capabilities. Notably, shortage of fund, inadequate hardware, insufficient IT support, inadequate management commitment towards enhancement of infrastructure capabilities are among the digital records preservation challenges faced by RAMD and RITA. Based on the results, would seem to suggest that RAMD and RITA are at transitional capabilities because the available infrastructures are advance but inadequate to effectively support digital records preservation initiatives.

Research Data Handling by Researchers in the Selected Universities in Tanzania

This study investigated the practice of research data handling in the selected higher learning institutions in Tanzania, with specific reference to the University of Dar es Salaam and University of Dodoma. The study assessed research data formats that are currently produced, where the research data are currently stored and whether researchers in the selected institutions use data management plan in their research activities. A study used both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Questionnaire was used to extract data from researchers while interview was used to obtain data from key informants who were categorized as potential managers responsible for research data management from the respective institutions. Results show that researchers have been producing various kinds of research data in various formats both digital and analogy data. Moreover, researchers handled these data using various approaches. This means that there were no systematic and well-guided methods of handling their research data making the data prone to get lost. Only a small number of researchers appeared to have a large amount of research data. Furthermore, only a few number of researchers indicated to have used research data management plan (RDM) in their research activities. This study recommends more collaboration among researchers, directorate of research and publication, ICT and library management to improve the research data handling in the universities.

EFFECT OF INTERNAL QUALITY ASSURANCE ON QUALITY CULTURE IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN TANZANIA

This paper aimed at assessing the effect of internal quality assurance on quality culture in higher education institutions in Tanzania. The hypothesis that the study intended to analyze is that internal quality assurance has no effect on quality culture. The study was designed using explanatory hypothesis-testing survey with quantitative approach. The study used a population of higher education institution in Tanzania and a sample from seven higher education institutions. The sample included 350 respondents from seven different higher education institutions in Tanzania. Data were collected using survey questionnaires and secondary data. Findings revealed that internal quality assurance mechanisms such as self evaluation, benchmarking, academic audit, peer review and external examination have an effect on quality culture in higher education institutions in Tanzania. The study concluded that internal quality assurance has an effect on quality culture in HEIs. The study recommends that internal quality assurance mechanisms should be supported by different stakeholders in order to assure involvement of commitment of staff and students in implementation of quality policies and quality programs in HEIs in Tanzania.

Factors Affecting the Adoption of E-Learning Systems in Public Higher Learning Institutions in Tanzania: A Case of Institute of Accountancy Arusha (IAA)

In most developing countries, governments attempt to enforce the movement from analogue to digital for all their sectors, from public to private. These technological advancements have been noted to bring necessary and unavoidable changes to businesses and learning environments. Higher learning institutions have adopted various e-learning systems to support learning, research, and publication activities to stay competitive in global academic systems. However, most public higher learning institutions in Tanzania lag behind in the adoption of these systems. Thus, research shows a failure of these institutions in utilising the full benefit that today’s Information and Communication Technology (ICT) can offer in learning environments. Thus, this study examines factors affecting the adoption of such a system in developing countries like Tanzania, taking the Institute of Accountancy Arusha (IAA) as a case study. The study used a mixed methodology where thematic and descriptive analysis was used to analyse both qualitative and quantitative research data. The study population was 187 teaching staff, a sample size of 126 was obtained, and 157 study participants were involved in the study. The study found that factors affecting the adoption of e-learning systems in public higher learning institutions in Tanzania include lack of ICT infrastructure, lack of technical and managerial support and lack of computers and e-learning knowledge among facilitators. Thus, the study recommended investments in adequate and reliable ICT facilities, high intermate speed and bandwidth, and policies that support e-learning and training programs about e-learning knowledge and use. Also, this study recommends the use of the Multi-Factors Adoption Model (MFAM11) for the successful adoption of an e-learning system in public higher learning institutions in Tanzania.

THE INFLUENCE OF BEHAVIOURAL INTENTION ON THE ADOPTION OF ELECTRONIC LEARNING IN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTIONS IN TANZANIA

eLearning systems have been used a lot, especially in universities, as a way to improve teaching and learning, especially because they make teaching and learning easier and more flexible. However, different countries, regions, cultures, and societies have adopted them at different rates. This study aimed at examining the influence of behavioural intention on the adoption of eLearning in university institutions in Tanzania, in which the Open University of Tanzania and the Hubert Kairuki Memorial University were involved, the Theory of Planned Behaviour was utilized in the study. The study employed an electronic web-based survey to obtain data from 371 respondents using simple random, purposive, stratified, and proportional sampling techniques. Academics, students, and ICT staff participated. Using IBM SPSS Version 22 and Amos Version 23 with SEM, data were analyzed using both exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The findings revealed that Behavioural Intention positively influenced eLearning Adoption in university institutions in Tanzania. Since the behavioural intention only accounted for 5% of the eLearning Adoption, the study therefore recommended for additional studies to investigate other factors that influence university institutions toward adoption, use or continuance of using eLearning. Further, this study included only two university institutions, it is therefore, recommended that more universities be included in further research in order to investigate future prospects of universities to adopt, use, or continue using eLearning systems.

EFFECT OF EXTERNAL QUALITY ASSURANCE ON QUALITY CULTURE IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN TANZANIA

This paper aimed at assessing the effect of external quality assurance (EQA) on quality culture (QC) in higher education institutions in Tanzania. The study used explanatory design with quantitative approach. The population included higher education institutions (HEIs) located in Dar es Salaam region and a sample of 350 respondents was selected. Data were collected using survey questionnaires. Findings revealed that external quality assurance processes such as program accreditation, university accreditation, degree recognition, resources availability, and academic standards have different effects on quality culture in higher education institutions in Tanzania. The study concluded that HEIs in Tanzania have benefited from external quality assurance practices since they have allowed them to build quality culture. The study recommended that HEIs should comply with EQA in order to continuously improve their QC.

Implication of Land Regularization in Accessing Credits from Financial Institutions in Tanzania

A linkage between land regularization and access to credit has been a policy priority in developing countries including Tanzania. However, formal credit markets in these countries are underdeveloped and expectations that land titling through land regularization improves access to credit are muted. A study to examine the implication of land regularization in accessing credit from formal financial institutions in Tanzania was carried out in two areas of Kimara and Buhongwa Wards in cities of Dar es salaam and Mwanza respectively. Data were collected through household questionnaire survey and key informant interviews. A total of 450 respondents were involved in this study. The regression model was used to estimate credit access from financial institutions. Findings observed insignificant implication to credit access mainly because most land owners with certificate of right occupancy had no enabling environment to link legally documented plots with the formal financial institutions to support household activation of investment on land. We also found that land owners issued with certificate of right of occupancy felt that, lack of collateral was a major stumbling block for formal credit access. We conclude that there is a need to restructure the financial plans to get coordinated and/or integrated with plans to regularize land and structure strategies to mitigate risks from households and/or firms and financial institutions to enhance household to access formal credits and activation of investments on land in regularized areas.

The Effects of Service Quality on Customer Satisfaction in Higher Learning Institutions in Tanzania

The Effects of Service Quality on Customer Satisfaction in Higher Learning Institutions in Tanzania

Information Systems Security Threats and Vulnerabilities: A Case of the Institute of Accountancy Arusha (IAA)

All modern computer users need to be concerned about information system security (individuals and organisations). Many businesses established various security structures to protect information system security from harmful occurrences by implementing security procedures, processes, policies, and information system security organisational structures to ensure data security. Despite all the precautions, information security remains a disaster in Tanzania’s learning institutions. The fundamental issue appears to be a lack of awareness of crucial information security factors. Various companies have different security issues due to differences in ICT infrastructure, implementations, and usage. The study focuses on identifying information system security threats and vulnerabilities in public higher learning institutions in Tanzania, particularly the Institute of Accountancy Arusha (IAA). The study involved all employees of IAA, academics, and other supporting staff, which totalled 302, and the sample size was 170. The study utilised a descriptive research design, where the quantitative methodology was used through a five-point Likert scale questionnaire, and found that key factors that affect the security of information systems at IAA include human factors, policy-related issues, work environment and demographic factors. The study proposed regular awareness and training programs; an increase in women’s awareness of information system security; proper policy creation and reviews every 4 years; promote actions that lessen information system security threats and vulnerabilities, and the creation of information system security policy documents independently from ICT policy.

A review of conservation-related benefit-sharing mechanisms in Tanzania

Benefit-sharing has been instrumental in empowering local communities living on the edge of protected areas to engage in natural resource management and enhance biodiversity conservation outcomes. Tanzania has various categories of protected area managed by six main conservation institutions, each with different types of benefit-sharing mechanisms. To investigate the acceptability of these mechanisms among local communities living in proximity to protected areas and their effectiveness at delivering benefits, we undertook a systematic review of > 1000 peer-reviewed articles related to the topic published between January 1990 and February 2021. The 71 publications that met our selection criteria covered all the main categories of protected area in Tanzania. Benefit-sharing mechanisms took three forms: i. social services provision; ii. livelihood provision; and iii. employment for local people. About half the studies (48%) indicated that local people accepted or strongly accepted the benefits provided by conservation institutions in Tanzania with the level of community acceptance linked strongly with the history of engagement between communities and the conservation institutions while 40% of the reviewed studies indicated the negative views. We recommend that future research explores the values and demand for benefits among local people living close to protected areas, particularly in disaffected communities, to ensure benefit-sharing mechanisms deliver desirable socio-economic outcomes for local communities as well as conservation outcomes.

The Role of Internal Audit Function on Performance of Public Higher Learning Institutions in Tanzania: A Case of the Institute of Accountancy Arusha

This study investigated on role of internal audit function on performance of public higher learning institutions in Tanzania using the descriptive correlational design. From 306 staff members, 103 were selected through the simple random sampling and 83 filled and returned the questionnaires. Data was analyzed through descriptive statistics and regression analysis. The organization was found to be doing well in risk management and control mechanism aspects as part of the internal auditing function. There are adequate human and material resources for internal audit function. The internal audit staffs are qualified and the management supports the internal audit initiatives with ICT facilities and adequate budget. While risk management, control mechanism and availability of resources significantly predicted the organizational performance, governance process did not. Availability of resources for internal auditing was the best predictor for the organizational performance. It is therefore recommended that the organization should maintain the existing risk management strategies and regular presentation of risk management reports as such aspects contribute to the organizational performance. Since risk management, control mechanism and availability of resources are significant predictors for the organizational performance, there is need to keep improving the control mechanism and provide required resources for effective internal audit function.

EXISTING CONFLICTS AMONG STAFF MEMBERS IN SELECTED PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN TANZANIA

<p>Public secondary schools refer to the secondary schools that receive government support and its operations are controlled by the government. In recent years, several educational institutions in Tanzania have experienced conflicts among schools’ staff members. This study was conducted in Dodoma City Council, which is found in Dodoma Region, Tanzania. The area was selected randomly. A sample of 110 informants was drawn. Both primary and secondary data were collected. The study revealed that, conflicts vary from one school to another but the most experienced type of conflict in public secondary schools were interpersonal conflicts which include conflict between staff members and heads of schools, staff members themselves, teachers and students’ parents as well as members of school committee or village leaders. Furthermore, conflicts in public secondary schools were caused by difference in individuals’ attitudes, inadequate resources, friends’ influence, indiscipline on the part of schools’ staff members and administrators, favoritism by the school administrators, administrative incompetence and the misuse of funds. </p><p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/edu_01/0935/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

ESTIMATION OF PATIENT RADIATION DOSES FROM MULTI-DETECTOR COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY ANGIOGRAPHY PROCEDURES IN TANZANIA.

The aim of the present study was to estimate the volume CT dose index (CTDIvol), dose length product (DLP) and effective dose (ED) to patients from five multi-detector computed tomography angiography (MDCTA) procedures: brain, carotid, coronary, entire aorta and lower limb from four medical institutions in Tanzania; to compare these doses to those reported in the literature, and to compare the data obtained with ICRP 103 and Monte Carlo software. The radiation doses for 217 patients were estimated using patient demographics, patient-related exposure parameters, the geometry of examination and CT-Expo V 2.4 Monte Carlo-based software. The median values of the CTDIvol, DLP and ED for MDCTA procedures of the brain and carotids were 36.8mGy, 1481.0mGy∙cm and 5.2mSv, and 15.9mGy, 1224.0mGy∙cm and 7.8mSv, respectively; while for the coronary, entire aortic, and lower limbs were 49.4mGy, 1493.0mGy∙cm and 30.6mSv; 16.2mGy, 2287.0mGy∙cm and 41.1mSv; and 6.4mGy, 1406.0mGy∙cm and 10.5mSv, respectively. The ratio of the maximum to minimum ED values to individual patients across the four medical centers were 41.4, 11.1, 4.6, 9.5 and 37.4, respectively, for the brain, carotid, coronary, entire aortic and lower limb CT angiography procedures. The mean values of CTDIvol, DLP and ED in the present study were typically higher than the values reported from Kenya, Korea and Saudi Arabia. The 75th percentile values of the DLP were above the preliminary diagnostic references levels proposed by Kenya, Switzerland and Korea. The observed wide range of examination scanning protocols and patient doses for similar MDCTA procedures within and across hospitals; and the observed relatively high patient doses compared to those reported in the literature, call for the need to standardize scanning protocols and optimise patient dose from MDCTA procedures.