Inner-city School Research Articles

Principal Allyship in Saskatchewan Inner-City Schools

ABSTRACT Schools that are described as “inner-city” schools in Saskatchewan are commonly found in communities plagued with racialized poverty that consist predominantly of Indigenous families. Principals who are considered to be allies by Indigenous communities work alongside Indigenous students, families, and staff to challenge the effects of colonization and marginalization, and collectively work on student learning outcomes. This article reports on the findings of a study that examined school-based leadership within an inner-city Saskatchewan school with a high Indigenous population. The purpose of the study was to invite Indigenous people associated with schools to discuss school leadership and the extent to which school-based leaders can work as allies to improve the experiences of Indigenous students. Participants identified significant challenges within inner-city schools rooted in colonization, racism, and poverty, as well as mitigating measures that school leaders can take to offset some effects of these challenges. The need for principals to be identifiable to the community through their actions was significant. This included demonstrating a commitment to listening and learning from the community; maintaining high expectations for students as well as staff; focusing on relationship building with all segments of the community; welcoming diverse perspectives in decision-making, and; challenging and changing unjust processes and systems.

Working with constructs of inclusion for understanding teachers’ literacy practices and their impact on student learning

ABSTRACT The paper explores teachers’ language literacy practices in underprivileged, inner-city schools in Athens, Greece, and their implications for student learning and educational inclusion. The current developments of global/European and national education policy agendas on literacy and inclusion inform the research questions of the study. Bernstein’s theory of pedagogic discourse frames our analysis on the reproduction of social inequalities through schooling and informs our discussion on the discursive means and the pedagogic practices for their interruption. Findings, based on interview data and classroom observations, indicate that global discourses on inclusion, (re)articulated in the disadvantaged school settings of the study, invest the notion of inclusion with three different meanings: a. inclusion as assimilation and absorption into the dominant culture and society; b. inclusion as therapy for students’ emotional ‘traumas’; and c. inclusion as recognition of difference. We argue that these constructs of inclusion shape teaching practices that either promote or undermine student learning and empowerment.

Building Adolescents’ Resilience: Evaluating the Impact of a 20-Week Inner-City Program

Adolescence is a critical phase in any individual’s life, marked by rapid growth and profound psychological changes. Adolescents living in inner-city environments face unique challenges, including sedentary lifestyles, academic dysfunction, and socio-emotional disorders due to adverse ecological factors, such as a lack of resources or exposure to violence. In an effort to support them, the current study implemented a 20-week after-school program aimed to enhance their resilience. A total of 134 adolescents from inner-city schools in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, participated in our program (58% male; M age = 11.20, SD = 1.04). To assess the effectiveness of the program, two MANCOVA analyses were performed: one including all participants and a second specifically targeting those with lower resilience scores at baseline. Using the Resiliency Scales for Children & Adolescents (RSCA), our results revealed a significant improvement in participants’ Sense of Relatedness (p < .001), particularly among adolescents with lower resilience scores at baseline. In sum, these findings provide evidence of the program’s effectiveness in enhancing resilience among inner-city adolescents, particularly among those with initial lower levels of resilience.

The effects of urban green space and road proximity to indoor traffic-related PM2.5, NO2, and BC exposure in inner-city schools

BackgroundSince there are known adverse health impacts of traffic-related air pollution, while at the same time there are potential health benefits from greenness, it is important to examine more closely the impacts of these factors on indoor air quality in urban schools.ObjectiveThis study investigates the association of road proximity and urban greenness to indoor traffic-related fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and black carbon (BC) in inner-city schools.MethodsPM2.5, NO2, and BC were measured indoors at 74 schools and outdoors at a central urban over a 10-year period. Seasonal urban greenness was estimated using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) with 270 and 1230 m buffers. The associations between indoor traffic-related air pollution and road proximity and greenness were investigated with mixed-effects models.ResultsThe analysis showed linear decays of indoor traffic-related PM2.5, NO2, and BC by 60%, 35%, and 22%, respectively for schools located at a greater distance from major roads. The results further showed that surrounding school greenness at 270 m buffer was significantly associated (p < 0.05) with lower indoor traffic-related PM2.5: −0.068 (95% CI: −0.124, −0.013), NO2: −0.139 (95% CI: −0.185, −0.092), and BC: −0.060 (95% CI: −0.115, −0.005). These associations were stronger for surrounding greenness at a greater distance from the schools (buffer 1230 m) PM2.5: −0.101 (95% CI: −0.156, −0.046) NO2: −0.122 (95% CI: −0.169, −0.075) BC: −0.080 (95% CI: −0.136, −0.026). These inverse associations were stronger after fully adjusting for regional pollution and meteorological conditions.Impact statementMore than 90% of children under the age of 15 worldwide are exposed to elevated air pollution levels exceeding the WHO’s guidelines. The study investigates the impact that urban infrastructure and greenness, in particular green areas and road proximity, have on indoor exposures to traffic-related PM2.5, NO2, and BC in inner-city schools. By examining a 10-year period the study provides insights for air quality management, into how road proximity and greenness at different buffers from the school locations can affect indoor exposure.

The Power of Play: Examining the Impact of a School Yard Playground on Attitudes Toward School and Peer Relationships Among Elementary School Students in Chennai, India.

Introduction. School environments may impact elementary school students' attachment levels to school as well as their mental and emotional well-being. Yet investments in recess/play infrastructure lag commitments to academic resources, particularly in developing countries. The main objective was to examine the impact of installing playground equipment, in the school yard, on students' attitudes toward school, peers, and the capacity to play of elementary-school children in an underserved, inner-city school in Chennai, India. Methods. A previously validated school attachment questionnaire was modified and administered to 140 and 148 students in pre- and post-playground installation, respectively. Results. For 7 out of 13 survey questions, student attitudes about their own recreational time and their attitudes toward peers significantly improved after playground installation. Conclusion. These results highlight the need for investments in play spaces, and recreational equipment may be just as important as addressing academic needs, especially among underserved children.

Parental Perceptions and Perceived Environmental Influences on Active Transport to School in U.S. Inner-City Neighborhoods: Through the Lens of Health Equity

Introduction: Physical inactivity remains high amongst Asian American (AA) children. The Safe Routes to School (SRTS) Program is a viable approach for increasing levels of physical activity by encouraging active transport to school (ATS). The objective of this study was to investigate the factors that affect ATS among Asian American children in inner-city schools.&#x0D; Methods: An adapted version of the national SRTS survey that measures socio-demographics, environmental factors, and parental perceptions toward school routes and transportation modes were administered in eight public schools in Hamtramck, MI.&#x0D; Results: Multinominal logistic regression results indicated that the age of children, distance to school, perceived school encouragement, and parents’ perceptions on safety were the predominant factors associated with Asian American children participating in ATS.&#x0D; Conclusion: The study is among the first underserved environmental and access factors that influence Asian American children’s ATS patterns. Particularly, findings showed that the safety perceptions of parents play a key role in affecting their decisions about ATS and should be considered in future interventions and programming designs to promote ATS.

The Lived Experiences of Preschool Children Ages 3–4: The Practices of Independence in the Case Some Pre School in Vietnam

Independence helps children to always be confident and to control themselves in activities and communication. Education for independence is an urgent issue for education systems around the world to meet the requirements of society in the current context, one side it represented the developments of the education system and the other is it shows the developments of the early ages of the generation of a nation. By means of observation measured by the 5-point Likert scale, by the observers are lecturers and staff of the National College for Education this study was conducted in suburban and inner-city schools of both public and non-public types on the independence of 3–4-year-olds whose ages from 36 to 48 months the data then was collected and proceed by SPSS. The results show that children's independence is quite good, with a five-point scale in all independent expressions. However, there is a need for more in-depth additional studies for each type of school or further identification of the influencing factors for children's independence at this age.

Menstrual hygiene management practices and determinants among schoolgirls in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: The urgency of tackling bottlenecks - Water and sanitation services

BackgroundMenstrual hygiene management (MHM) service provision and improving schoolgirls' hygienic practices in schools are among the major challenges for low and middle income countries, including Ethiopia, in meeting the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. This study was conducted to assess schoolgirls’ MHM practices and what influences those practices in Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted on 401 adolescent schoolgirls and 98 school directors that were selected using a multistage sampling method. Pretested semi-structured interviewer-administered questionnaires and observational checklists were used to collect data. ResultsDuring menstruation, about 90% of schoolgirls used commercially made disposable sanitary pads. However, only 45.9% of girls had access to emergency pads from their schools. Of the 98 directors, 79 (80.6%) responded that they had MHM provisions for schoolgirls. However, 42 (42.9%) schools had no water and soap in the pad changing rooms/toilets, and 70% lacked a covered dustbin for disposal/storage of soiled sanitary pads. Besides, more than 55% of the schools practiced open burning and dumping to dispose of used menstrual materials. More than half of the schools had no sanitary pad changing rooms, three-quarters of them lack MHM education, and only 2.5% had a bathing area. The location of schools (AOR = 5.44, 95% CI: (2.34–12.66)), health club availability (AOR = 3.14, 95% CI: (1.53, 6.42)), being informed about MHM before menarche (AOR = 2.04, 95% CI: (1.04, 4.00)), and availability of emergency sanitary pad at schools (AOR = 2.59, 95% CI: (1.36, 4.91)) were significantly associated with the status of schoolgirls menstrual hygiene practices. ConclusionsAbout one-quarter of the schoolgirls had poor menstrual hygiene practices. Being a student in inner-city schools, attending a school that had a health club, being informed about MHM before menarche, and having access to emergency pads from schools were the determinant factors for good menstrual hygiene practices. However, most schools lack water, soap, and a covered dustbin in the pad changing rooms/toilets. Moreover, only a few schools provided MHM education and emergency pads. Improving water and sanitation services along with tailored MHM education are urgently needed to circumvent unsafe MHM practices among adolescent schoolgirls.

A Study of Phonemic Awareness, Letter Sound Knowledge, and Word Reading in Struggling Adolescent Students

ABSTRACT Phonemic awareness is thought to be a causal factor predicting early reading acquisition while its influence diminishes as other reading skills develop. This is a descriptive study of 74, primarily African American, fifth- through eighth-grade students attending a small, inner-city school. The study sought to determine the relationship between phonemic awareness, developmental spelling, pseudoword reading, and sight word reading in adolescent students who struggle with reading. Correlation results showed statistically significant relations among all four variables with the largest between phonemic awareness and developmental spelling. Regression results revealed phonemic awareness predicted significant variance in developmental spelling (R2 = .51), but not pseudo- or sight word reading. A discontinuity test determined that the influence of phonemic awareness on developmental spelling was consistent across all levels of attainment. Results are discussed from a developmental perspective.

Becoming neoliberal policy subjects: Staff members’ discursive practices about school climate in Chile

ABSTRACT Reforms to school climate policies in Chile have led to a marked shift away from punitive approaches for dealing with bullying behaviours, toward more educationally formative processes. Schools in this national context have also been given greater responsibilities for designing anti-bullying practices relevant to their own educational communities. Based on qualitative interviews with staff members in six inner-city schools in the Chilean capital we query whether these policies really enable staff to create positive school climates. We suggest instead that, from a Foucauldian perspective of governance, staff become self-regulated subjects caught between a celebration of administrative autonomy and the pressure to meet national standards of anti-bullying in underfunded and under-resourced schools in socially deprived areas. Rather than solve bullying, staff become more occupied with the doing of new public management. We conclude by suggesting ways in which the current policies could be adapted to better support schools working in these contexts.

Mouse allergen levels in schools over the decade

Asthma is the most common disease of childhood, with a disproportionate burden in inner-city populations.1 Within inner-city homes, specific aeroallergen exposures, particularly mouse and cockroach, have been associated with asthma morbidity.2,3 Inner-city schools have also been shown to be a significant source of allergen exposure contributing to asthma morbidity.4 The first School Inner-City Asthma Study (SICAS 1), occurring between 2008 and 2013, revealed an association between exposure to mouse allergen in schools and worsening asthma symptoms, independent of sensitization status or home environmental exposure.

Harnessing Organizational Leadership and Cultural Competence to Attract and Retain Quality Teachers: The Case of Inner-City Schools

Strategic investments in organizational leadership within the education sector can reap significant dividends in attracting and retaining quality teachers. These investments include comprehensive cultural competency training for all school administrators, teachers, and staff as well as the inclusion of these groups in creating a collaborative organizational culture. Such investments are particularly important in inner-city schools, where research reveals that cultural incompetence and the absence of a collaboratively developed organizational plan contribute to high levels of teacher attrition and substantial difficulties in attracting new teachers. Because scholarship has already recognized and identified the problem of attracting talented teachers to low-income and urban districts, this article takes the next step to suggest novel evidence-based solutions to the problem. Central to this approach is the school administrator’s responsibility to build an organizational culture that ensures equity, educational rigor, and opportunities for meeting teachers’ and administrators’ work-related needs. Building this culture requires (a) delivery of empirically supported cultural competency training; (b) self-assessments of management style to create an approach designed to enhance employee satisfaction; (c) creation of a shared vision and organizational leadership plan designed to make the work environment more attractive and satisfying to current and prospective teachers; and (d) development of a flexible yet practical service delivery framework that enables employees’ workplace needs to be met. In creating this culture, we argue that inner-city teacher attraction and retention rates can be dramatically improved.

Exploring teacher–parent relationships in times of Covid-19: teachers’ expectations and parental home-schooling strategies in a Flemish context

ABSTRACT Previous research shows that the lockdown of schools due to the Covid-19 pandemic increased the already existing inequalities in education but little is known about the processes underlying these outcomes. In this study we used Bourdieu’s theories to explore how interactions between teachers’ expectations of parents and parents’ availability of cultural, social and economic capital could potentially influence educational inequalities in the context of distance education. The analysis is based on 24 qualitative interviews with parents from different social backgrounds, teachers and school coordinators, sampled from an inner-city primary school in Flanders (Belgium). The results indicate that teachers continue to have standardised expectations of the proper role that parents should perform in distance education, which were difficult for some families to meet due their availability of cultural and economic capital. However, this study suggests that teachers’ exposure to familial issues can result in teachers adapting their expectations and responses so that they are more likely to respond to the needs of parents and students in the field of distance education.

Factors Influencing Classroom Exposures to Fine Particles, Black Carbon, and Nitrogen Dioxide in Inner-City Schools and Their Implications for Indoor Air Quality

Background:School classrooms, where students spend the majority of their time during the day, are the second most important indoor microenvironment for children.Objective:We investigated factors influencing classroom exposures to fine particulate matter (), black carbon (BC), and nitrogen dioxide () in urban schools in the northeast United States.Methods:Over the period of 10 y (2008–2013; 2015–2019) measurements were conducted in 309 classrooms of 74 inner-city schools during fall, winter, and spring of the academic period. The data were analyzed using adaptive mixed-effects least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression models. The LASSO variables included meteorological-, school-, and classroom-based covariates.Results:LASSO identified 10, 10, and 11 significant factors () that were associated with indoor , BC, and exposures, respectively. The overall variability explained by these models was , 0.687, and 0.621 for , BC, and , respectively. Of the model’s explained variability, outdoor air pollution was the most important predictor, accounting for 53.9%, 63.4%, and 34.1% of the indoor , BC, and concentrations. School-based predictors included furnace servicing, presence of a basement, annual income, building type, building year of construction, number of classrooms, number of students, and type of ventilation that, in combination, explained 18.6%, 26.1%, and 34.2% of , BC, and levels, whereas classroom-based predictors included classroom floor level, classroom proximity to cafeteria, number of windows, frequency of cleaning, and windows facing the bus area and jointly explained 24.0%, 4.2%, and 29.3% of , BC, and concentrations, respectively.Discussion:The adaptive LASSO technique identified significant regional-, school-, and classroom-based factors influencing classroom air pollutant levels and provided robust estimates that could potentially inform targeted interventions aiming at improving children’s health and well-being during their early years of development. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10007

Through the Looking Glass: Assessing and Enhancing the Effectiveness of Bourdieu’s Theory of Practice to Understand the Achievement Gap in British Columbia's Inner-City Schools

This paper emerges from a 2016 conceptual study borne out of an ongoing practitioner inquiry in which I, as a practicing K-12 inner-city Canadian teacher, tried to understand, on a theoretical level, why the children at my inner-city school in Vancouver consistently underperform in an academic sense in spite of being provided with additional learning resources. The achievement gap that exists between British Columbia’s inner-city children and their more affluent peers cannot be adequately explained by differences in finances alone, but it has sociological roots, which I explored in this study. To understand the achievement gap, I chose to filter it through Pierre Bourdieu’s Theory of Practice (1992) and evaluate the effectiveness of his theory in being able to effectively explain the who, what, where, when, why, and how of this problem for me as an inner-city educator. Methodologically, I utilized the qualitative approach of hermeneutics (Gadamer, 2013) to fuse my horizon with that of Bourdieu so as to develop a deep understanding of his Theory of Practice and its core concepts of cultural capital, habitus, field, and symbolic violence, and their implications for inner-city school children. Hermeneutics permitted me to uncover multiple layers of theoretical evidence that I used ultimately to make an inductive argument that finds in favor of using theory of practice to understand academic underperformance among British Columbia’s inner-city school children. This paper is a presentation of the theoretical merits of Theory of Practice as an analytical lens for practitioners who wish to understand the achievement gap. This paper also explains how the efficacy of Theory of Practice can be enhanced when it is coupled with Lareau’s (2013) scholarship on class-based parenting practices. My second paper provides practitioner-scholars who are exploring this topic with recommendations as to how best to use Theory of Practice for maximum benefit.

Obesity May Enhance the Adverse Effects of NO2 Exposure in Urban Schools on Asthma Symptoms in Children

To evaluate relationships between inner-city classroom NO2 exposure and asthma symptoms and morbidity by BMI category.Children aged 4 to 13 (n = 271) years from 37 inner-city schools who had physician-diagnosed asthma for at least 1 year and were using daily preventive asthma medication, had wheezing within the last year, and/or had at least 1 unscheduled health care visit for asthma within the past year.This was a single-center prospective study conducted within the School Inner-City Asthma Study. Before the start of the academic year, baseline demographics, environmental factors, and asthma symptoms and medication use were obtained by questionnaire. Baseline evaluations included skin testing to common seasonal and perennial aeroallergens or by assessment serum-specific IgE to the same allergens, spirometry, and fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) measurement. BMI percentile was calculated and categorized by using CDC classifications. Classroom NO2 was measured twice during the school year, ∼6 months apart. The primary outcome was the number of days with asthma symptoms within the previous 14 days. The secondary outcomes assessed in the previous 2 weeks were the number of exacerbations (hospitalizations or unscheduled health care visits for asthma), the number of days caretakers had to change plans because of the child’s asthma symptoms, FeNO level, and pulmonary function (forced expiratory volume in 1 second [FEV1] and forced vital capacity [FVC]).Participants were predominantly African American and Hispanic (35% each) and impoverished (49% had an annual household income <$25 000). A total of 50% had normal BMI (fifth percentile to <85th percentile), 15% were overweight (85th percentile to <95% percentile), and 35% were obese (≥95th percentile). Most (69%) were atopic, with specific immunoglobulin E to at least 1 aeroallergen. Obese students with asthma had statistically (but likely not clinically relevant) lower pulmonary function (FEV1 and FVC but not FEV1/FVC ratio), more positive skin test results, and lower FeNO than students with normal weight. The BMI category did not affect asthma symptom days, asthma symptoms, medication use, health care use for asthma, or missed school days. Caretakers of children with normal weight changed their plans more often than those of students who were overweight or obese. For children with normal weight or those who were overweight, NO2 levels were not associated with any of the measured outcomes. However, among children who were obese, for every 10-fold increase in NO2 level there were increased odds of asthma symptom days (1.9-fold), acute asthma-related health care use (2.4-fold), a missed school day because of asthma (3.1-fold), and care takers’ plans being changed because of the child’s asthma (4.2-fold). As compared with children with normal weight, in students who were obese, every 10 parts per billion increase in classroom NO2 level increased the likelihood of an asthma symptom day (odds ratio: 1.86; 95% confidence interval: 1.15 to 3.02) and of care takers changing their plans (odds ratio: 4.24; 95% confidence interval: 2.33 to 7.70). NO2 levels did not affect other outcomes, lung function, or FeNO across BMI categories.Obesity in inner-city students with asthma appears to increase susceptibility to the adverse effects of classroom NO2.NO2 is formed by combustion of liquid or solid fossil fuels. Indoor sources include gas stoves, heaters, and poorly ventilated furnaces and fireplaces. Furthermore, outdoor levels are elevated in heavily trafficked urban areas. The Environmental Protection Agency’s standard for safe outdoor level of NO2 is ∼50 parts per billion over a 1-year averaging time and 100 parts per billion over a 1 hour averaging time. Although the authors of this study do not specifically report classroom NO2 levels, it is clear from the 2 figures in the article that levels did not exceed 30 parts per billion, hence they were nowhere near the level up to which the Environmental Protection Agency considers safe. This is a warning that “safe” might not be safe enough. I think we all recognize the multiple and varied effects that both pollution and obesity have on health. With this study, the authors suggest synergy between 2 health risk factors and indicate that, as physicians, we must address all known risk factors for disease as we provide the best preventive and prospective care we can.

App Development in an Urban After-School Computing Programme: A Case Study with Design Implications

ABSTRACT This mixed methods case study presents the experience of a group of middle school students in a year-long, after-school computing programme in a large, inner-city school district in the southeastern United States. The purpose of this research is to explore informal educational strategies that are conducive at giving underrepresented minority youth access to information and communication technology tools and content. Results indicate that hands-on support from mentors, peer collaboration, and options for customising work and creating unique projects contributed positively to the student experience in the programme. This study suggests giving students more creative freedom, adequate scaffolding and the option for peer collaboration when working in informal learning environments. Results are specific to the context of the one school in which this pilot study was conducted, though the findings confirm the research of others in this area. Data sources included a perceptions survey, participant interviews and researcher observations.

Diagrarting: theorising and practising new ways of writing and drawing

ABSTRACT This article explains what is meant by the neologism, coined by the author, ‘diagrarting’. It shows how diagrarting could be a new form of writing and drawing which is useful for writers, teachers and learners. In brief, the phrase diagrarting combines the words diagrams, dialogue and art. Diagrarting involves adopting an artistic identity when making marks on the page. To diagrart, one must write and draw, and believe you are creating art, no matter how crude you think your work to be. A diagrart is invariably rough and ready, and possibly not comprehensible to anyone else but its author. A diagrart is made intelligible through dialogue. If working alone, an author may talk to their diagrart, asking themselves about what it means, what they have learnt from it and so on. If working with other people, a diagrart is explained through conversation. This article shows how and why diagrarting could be an important practice for writers, artists, teachers and pupils to adopt in different contexts, providing empirical evidence of its success in the author’s own creative practice and in an inner-city school.

Prevalence of conduct problems and social risk factors in ethnically diverse inner-city schools

BackgroundIn the UK, around 5% of 11–16-year olds experience conduct problems of clinical importance. However, there are limited data on prevalence of conduct problems by ethnic group, and how putative social risk factors may explain any variations in prevalence. This study has two main aims: (1) to estimate the prevalence and nature of conduct problems overall, and by ethnic group and gender, among adolescents in diverse inner-city London schools; (2) to assess the extent to which putative risk factors - racial discrimination, socioeconomic status, parental control, and troublesome friends - explain any observed differences in prevalence of conduct problems between ethnic groups.MethodsThis study uses baseline data from REACH, an accelerated cohort study of adolescent mental health in inner-city London. Self-report questionnaire data were collected on conduct problems and a range of distinct putative social risk factors (including racial discrimination, free school meals, troublesome friends, and parental care and control). A total of 4353 pupils, 51% girls, aged 11–14 participated. We estimated prevalence of conduct problems and used multilevel logistic regression to examine differences by ethnicity and gender and associations with putative risk factors.ResultsPrevalence of conduct problems in inner-city schools was around three times higher than reported in national studies (i.e., 16% [95%CI: 15·2–17·5] vs. 5% [95%CI 4·6–5·9]). Compared with overall prevalence, conduct problems were lower among Indian/Pakistani/Bangladeshi (RR: 0.53 [95% CI:0.31–0.87]) and white British (RR: 0.65 [0.51–0.82]) groups, and higher among black Caribbean (RR: 1.39 [95%CI:1.19–1.62]) and mixed white and black (RR: 1.29 [95% CI: 1.02–1.60]) groups. Risk of conduct problems was higher among those who were exposed to racial discrimination compared with those who were not (RR: 1.95 [95% CI: 1.59–2.31]).ConclusionsConduct problems are markedly more common in inner-city schools, and variations in the prevalence of conduct problems are, to some extent, rooted in modifiable social contexts and experiences, such as experiences of racial discrimination.

Prevalence of conduct problems and social risk factors in ethnically diverse inner-city schools

Prevalence of conduct problems and social risk factors in ethnically diverse inner-city schools