Initial Mass Fraction Research Articles

Insights into the cooling rate and preservative effect of slurry ice on large yellow croaker (Pseudosciaena crocea) in terms of the fish/ice ratio, salinity, and the ice mass fraction

AbstractThe cooling effect of slurry ice as cooling medium on large yellow croaker (Pseudosciaena crocea) was studied by considering different fish/ice ratio, salinity and initial ice mass fraction (40%, 60%, and 80%). Results obtained with optical microscope clarified that the ice particle size and cooling time of slurry ice were decreased at increasing salinity. Best precooling efficiency was obtained with specific values of fish/ice ratio 1:2, salinity 5.0%, and initial ice mass fraction 60%. Then, the effects of precooling time (0, 3, 12, and 24 h) in slurry ice on the quality of large yellow croaker stored at 4°C were investigated. The results showed that slurry ice precooling could significantly (p < 0.05) inhibit the microbial reproduction and retard the quality deterioration of large yellow croaker. Therefore, slurry ice can be a promising precooling method for the quality maintenance of marine fish.Practical applicationsLarge yellow croaker is extremely perishable due to its nutrient abundance. The spoilage process of fish is vitally influenced by the changes of internal environment and external environment after harvest. Timely precooling can prominently improve the shelf‐life of perishable foods. Slurry ice, a two‐phase system consisting of seawater (or artificial seawater) and spherical ice microcrystals, is regarded as an alternative precooling medium. Compared with conventional ice, slurry ice has faster cooling rate, little physical damage to soft tissue such as aquatic products and has better fluidity allows it to comprehensively cover the fish surface, thereby protecting fish from oxidation.

Characterisation of the TOI-421 planetary system using CHEOPS, TESS, and archival radial velocity data

Context. The TOI-421 planetary system contains two sub-Neptune-type planets (Pb ~ 5.2 days, Teq,b ~ 900 K, and Pc ~ 16.1 days, Teq,c ~ 650 K) and is a prime target to study the formation and evolution of planets and their atmospheres. The inner planet is especially interesting as the existence of a hydrogen-dominated atmosphere at its orbital separation cannot be explained by current formation models without previous orbital migration. Aims. We aim to improve the system parameters to further use them to model the interior structure and simulate the atmospheric evolution of both planets, to finally gain insights into their formation and evolution. We also investigate the possibility of detecting transit timing variations (TTVs). Methods. We jointly analysed photometric data of three TESS sectors and six CHEOPS visits as well as 156 radial velocity data points to retrieve improved planetary parameters. We also searched for TTVs and modelled the interior structure of the planets. Finally, we simulated the evolution of the primordial H-He atmospheres of the planets using two different modelling frameworks. Results. We determine the planetary radii and masses of TOI-421 b and c to be Rb = 2.64 ± 0.08 R⊕, Mb = 6.7 ± 0.6 M⊕, Rc = 5.09 ± 0.07 R⊕, and Mc = 14.1 ± 1.4 M⊕. Using these results we retrieved average planetary densities of ρb = 0.37 ± 0.05ρ⊕ and ρc = 0.107 ± 0.012 ρ⊕. We do not detect any statistically significant TTV signals. Assuming the presence of a hydrogen-dominated atmosphere, the interior structure modelling results in both planets having extensive envelopes. While the modelling of the atmospheric evolution predicts for TOI-421 b to have lost any primordial atmosphere that it could have accreted at its current orbital position, TOI-421 c could have started out with an initial atmospheric mass fraction somewhere between 10 and 35%. Conclusions. We conclude that the low observed mean density of TOI-421 b can only be explained by either a bias in the measured planetary parameters (e.g. driven by high-altitude clouds) and/or in the context of orbital migration. We also find that the results of atmospheric evolution models are strongly dependent on the employed planetary structure model.

Experimental investigation on CO2-based zeotropic mixture composition-adjustable system

CO2 is a promising natural working fluid for its environment-friendly, property-stable and low-cost, and CO2-based zeotropic mixture could enhance the comprehensive performance of combined cooling and power cycle (CCP). Generally, CCP operates in a wide temperature range, and the fixed operating composition could not realize the optimal match for two sub-cycles. Zeotropic mixture composition adjustment could realize targeted thermal match of sub-cycles and further enhance the performance of CCP. However, systematic research on composition-adjustable CCP is limited in theoretical simulation, and there is still a lack of experimental evidence for the performance enhancement of composition adjustment on CCP. Besides, the feasibility of composition adjustment on CCP has not been fully verified through experimental method yet. In this study, an experimental prototype of CO2-based composition-adjustable CCP is established, the approach to realize composition adjustment is investigated, and the systematic test is carried out. Experimental results show that the introduction of composition adjustment is beneficial to the performance of CCP. Under the same boundary conditions and similar refrigeration conditions, composition-adjustable CCP could export 13.72 % more net power than composition-fixed CCP when the initial charged CO2 mass fraction equals 0.246, and the improvement is more apparent when the initial charged composition gets larger.

The impact of a top-heavy IMF on the formation and evolution of dark star clusters

ABSTRACT The Spitzer instability leads to the formation of a black hole subsystem (BHSub) at the centre of a star cluster providing energy to luminous stars (LSs) and increasing their rate of evaporation. When the self-depletion time of the BHSub exceeds the evaporation time of the LSs, a dark star cluster (DSC) will appear. Using the nbody7 code, we performed a comprehensive set of direct N-body simulations over a wide range of initial conditions to study the pure effect of the top-heaviness of the initial mass function (IMF) on the formation of the DSC phase. In the Galactic tidal field, top-heavy IMFs lead to the fast evaporation of LSs and the formation of DSCs. Therefore, DSCs can be present even in the outer region of the Milky Way (MW). To successfully transition to the DSC phase, the MW Globular Clusters (GCs) must possess an initial black hole (BH) mass fraction of $\widetilde {\mathit {M}}_\mathrm{BH}(0)\gt 0.05$. For star clusters with $\widetilde {\mathit {M}}_\mathrm{BH}(0)\gt 0.08$, the DSC phase will be created for any given initial density of the cluster and Galactocentric distance. The duration of the cluster’s lifetime spent in the DSC phase shows a negative (positive) correlation with the initial density, and Galactocentric distance of the star cluster if $\widetilde {\mathit {M}}_\mathrm{BH}(0)\le 0.12$ ($\widetilde {\mathit {M}}_\mathrm{BH}(0)\ge 0.15$). Considering the canonical IMF, it is unlikely for any MW GCs to enter the DSC phase. We discuss the BH retention fraction in view of the observed properties of the GCs of the MW.

The effect of small perturbation on dynamics of absorptive LiBr–water solution

In a binary solution of lithium bromide–water, even a small disturbance in the initial homogeneous mass fraction at the absorbing interface has profound effects on the entire system dynamics. This perturbation of absorption disrupts the equilibrium, leading to the formation of surface tension gradients and subsequently, Marangoni flows. While these flows are relatively weak, they result in a non-uniform distribution of density within the bulk, initiating buoyant convection. We investigate complexities of the Marangoni, solutal, and buoyant convection caused by localized disruptions in uniform absorption, all in the absence of any surfactants. We have conducted numerical simulations to explore fluid dynamics and heat and mass transfer, revealing three different regimes. Initially, shortly after disturbance, variations in mass fraction and flow within the cell are primarily governed by the Marangoni force. After a finite period, the emergence of buoyant convection leads to the strong growth of velocity and significant changes in temperature and mass fraction. Finally, the destabilization of the boundary layer becomes so significant that the emission of plumes is observed. At later times, the parallel existence of two types of patterns takes on a spatially fixed form. The central part, occupied by bands (visible on space-time maps), exhibits minimal changes in time, while a periodic structure is established near the wall. This behavior can be characterized as a relaxation–oscillation mode of instability.

Three young planets around the K-dwarf K2-198: high-energy environment, evaporation history, and expected future

ABSTRACT Planets orbiting young stars are thought to experience atmospheric evaporation as a result of the host stars’ high-magnetic activity. We study the evaporation history and expected future of the three known transiting exoplanets in the young multiplanet system K2-198. Based on spectroscopic and photometric measurements, we estimate an age of the K-dwarf host star between 200 and 500 Myr, and calculate the high-energy environment of these planets using eROSITA X-ray measurements. We find that the innermost planet K2-198c has likely lost its primordial envelope within the first few 10s of Myr regardless of the age at which the star drops out of the saturated X-ray regime. For the two outer planets, a range of initial envelope mass fractions is possible, depending on the not-yet-measured planetary mass and the stars’ spin-down history. Regarding the future of the system, we find that the outermost planet K2-198b is stable against photoevaporation for a wide range of planetary masses, while the middle planet K2-198d is only able to retain an atmosphere for a mass range between ∼7 and 18 M⊕. Lower mass planets are too susceptible to mass-loss, and a very thin present-day envelope for higher mass planets is easily lost with the estimated mass-loss rates. Our results support the idea that all three planets started out above the radius valley in the (sub-)Neptune regime and were then transformed into their current states by atmospheric evaporation, but also stress the importance of measuring planetary masses for (young) multiplanet systems before conducting more detailed photoevaporation simulations.

Gas mixture conditions conducive to backdraft phenomenon

This work examines the influence of gas mixture compositions on backdraft phenomenon. A series of experiments were conducted in a reduced-scale enclosure subjected to various fire configurations, including a 25.0 kW and a 37.5 kW methane fire and a 16.7 kW and a 25.0 kW propane fire. Three different metrics were used to evaluate backdraft phenomenon: (1) internal conditions within the enclosure before an anticipated backdraft; (2) ignition of a local gas mixture resulting in a backdraft; and (3) intensity of resulting backdraft. The gas mixture composition within the compartment before a backdraft was determined using measurements obtained from an enhanced phi meter and gas analyzer. Ignition resulting in a backdraft was evaluated from the equivalence ratio and gas species concentration measurements surrounding a triggered spark ignitor. Backdraft intensity was analyzed by quantifying the total heat release of the exiting fireball via carbon dioxide generation calorimetry. Real-time equivalence ratio measurements showed the progressive state of the gas mixture composition within the compartment before ignition. Backdraft was observed to occur when the gas mixture surrounding the ignition soure was greater than stoichiometric conditions. The total heat release of backdrafts was found to correspond to the initial mass fraction of fuel residing within the compartment for experiments with propane fires.

Giant Impact Events for Protoplanets: Energetics of Atmospheric Erosion by Head-on Collision

Numerous exoplanets with masses ranging from Earth to Neptune and radii larger than Earth have been found through observations. These planets possess atmospheres that range in mass fractions from 1% to 30%, reflecting the diversity of atmospheric mass fractions. Such diversities are supposed to be caused by differences in the formation processes or evolution. Here, we consider head-on giant impacts onto planets causing atmosphere losses in the later stage of their formation. We perform smoothed particle hydrodynamic simulations to study the impact-induced atmosphere loss of young super-Earths with 10%–30% initial atmospheric mass fractions. We find that the kinetic energy of the escaping atmosphere is almost proportional to the sum of the kinetic impact energy and self-gravitational energy released from the merged core. We derive the relationship between the kinetic impact energy and the escaping atmosphere mass. The giant impact events for planets of comparable masses are required in the final stage of the popular scenario of rocky planet formation. We show it results in a significant loss of the atmosphere, if the impact is a head-on collision with comparable masses. This latter fact provides a constraint on the formation scenario of rocky planets with substantial atmospheres.

Composition constraints of the TRAPPIST-1 planets from their formation

ABSTRACT We study the formation of the TRAPPIST-1 (T1) planets starting shortly after Moon-sized bodies form just exterior to the ice line. Our model includes mass growth from pebble accretion and mergers, fragmentation, type-I migration, and eccentricity and inclination dampening from gas drag. We follow the composition evolution of the planets fed by a dust condensation code that tracks how various dust species condense out of the disc as it cools. We use the final planet compositions to calculate the resulting radii of the planets using a new planet interior structure code and explore various interior structure models. Our model reproduces the broader architecture of the T1 system and constrains the initial water mass fraction of the early embryos and the final relative abundances of the major refractory elements. We find that the inner two planets likely experienced giant impacts and fragments from collisions between planetary embryos often seed the small planets that subsequently grow through pebble accretion. Using our composition constraints, we find solutions for a two-layer model, a planet comprised of only a core and mantle, that match observed bulk densities for the two inner planets b and c. This, along with the high number of giant impacts the inner planets experienced, is consistent with recent observations that these planets are likely desiccated. However, two-layer models seem unlikely for most of the remaining outer planets, which suggests that these planets have a primordial hydrosphere. Our composition constraints also indicate that no planets are consistent with a core-free interior structure.

Mechanism of Electrochemically Assisted Friction and Wear Behavior of GaN in KMnO4 Slurry

Electrochemically assisted friction and wear behavior of gallium nitride (GaN) in a KMnO4 slurry was investigated to optimize the composition of the chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) slurry, and the material removal effect of GaN was visually evaluated by using the coefficient of friction (COF) curve and wear area. The results showed that the surface oxidation of GaN was effectively enhanced by KMnO4 and electrochemical assistance. The average COF and wear area of GaN increased with stronger oxidation of the environmental media, which improved the removal of the GaN surface material. Under acidic conditions, the oxidation of KMnO4 for GaN surface was significantly stronger than that under neutral and alkaline conditions, and the GaN surface was effectively oxidized and corroded when the initial mass fraction of KMnO4 was 5 wt%. When the chemical and mechanical actions reached a synergistic effect, the oxide layer generated on the GaN surface was immediately removed by the Si3N4 ball and SiO2 abrasive, which led to a large increase in material removal rate (MMR); the COF curve tended to stabilize, and the average COF increased. The experimental results of the electrochemically assisted CMP of GaN were consistent with the friction and wear test results.

Bisphenol A monitoring during anaerobic degradation of papers with thermochromic prints in soil

Pseudoestrogene bisphenol A (BPA) can be important ingredient of thermochromic inks, increasingly used materials in thermal printing paper, security printing, advertising, design and as temperature indicators in medicine and food industry. BPA mass fraction in thermochromic inks can be up to several percent. Hence, disposal of items with thermochromic prints pose a risk of environmental pollution. In this work BPA mass fraction was monitored during anaerobic degradation of papers with thermochromic prints in soil in both matrices: papers and soil. The degradation conditions simulated deeper layers of waste at a landfill site. Six types of papers with prints of thermochromic ink containing 2% of BPA were subjected to anaerobic degradation over up to 150 days. Initial mass fractions of BPA in papers decreased form (126–460) μg/g to (<QL – 45) μg/g after 150 days. BPA amounts were reduced 10 to 50 times depending on the paper type: least for synthetic paper and most for wood-free coated. For soil analysis new HPLC-UV method was developed and validated. The method was linear from 0.75 ng/g to 0.6 μg/g of BPA in soil with correlation coefficient of 0.9994. Method precision was 4.4%, accuracy 83% and detection limit 0.9 ng/g. Expectedly, amount of BPA in soil was increasing during the experiment. Mass fractions of BPA in soil were from not detected in earlier stage of degradation to (4.9–23.2) ng/g after 150 days. Final BPA amounts in soil were similar to those found in industrial, urban and agricultural soils worldwide. Hence, BPA from papers with thermochromic prints was notably decomposed, and contaminated soil had the capacity to absorb and decompose BPA even under anaerobic conditions. After 150 days of anaerobic degradation, only up to 1.86% of BPA contained in paper prints was found in soil, whilst, on average, 4% of initial BPA remained in paper.

Experimental study on interface characteristics of liquid sodium-water vapor interaction in SWR

When the sodium-water boundary in the sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) fails, water vapor will enter the liquid sodium and cause the sodium water reaction (SWR) accident. SWR may lead to many serious consequences for power plant. Thus, it is a non-negligible factor to be considered in the design and operation of SFR. In this study, experiments on the interaction between liquid sodium and water vapor were carried out. The reaction phenomena, temperature of liquid sodium, morphology of reaction product and other characteristics of the chemical were summarized and analyzed in this paper. The experiment was conducted under different initial sodium temperatures (300–450 °C) and different mass fraction of water vapor (0.1–0.9 at 200 °C) conditions. Visualization scheme was used in this experiment and the reaction process was recorded by a high-speed camera. The results indicate that both mass fraction of water vapor and initial temperature of liquid sodium are important factors in the reaction process. The mass fraction of water vapor affects the actual reaction rate. The initial temperature determines the form of reaction products (liquid NaOH) on the surface of liquid sodium. For the experiments with initial temperature below 400 °C, the reaction products appear as bubbles and foams. While the initial experiment temperature exceeds 400 °C (including 400 °C), bubbles and foams gone, replaced by a thin film. By analyzing the conditions of bubble generation, the surface tension of liquid NaOH is an important cause, which can be affected by the temperature and bounding water molecules. Furthermore, according to the measurement results of sodium temperature, the reaction products in the form of a large concentration of foams have a strong blocking effect on mass transfer and greatly slow down the actual reaction rate. This research has important reference significance for the study of the mechanism of liquid sodium and water vapor reaction.

Влияние внезапного сужения плоского канала на вынужденную конвекцию в турбулентном газокапельном течении

Numerical modeling of the flow structure and heat transfer in a gas-droplet turbulent flow in a duct with forward-facing step is carried out. The two-dimensional RANS equations are used in the numerical solution. The Eulerian two-fluid approach is used for describing the flow dynamics and heat transfer in the gaseous and dispersed phases. The turbulence of the carrier phase is described using an elliptical Reynolds stress model with taking the presence of dispersed phase. It is shown that finely-dispersed droplets are involved in the separation recirculation motion of the gas phase. The addition of evaporating droplets to a single-phase turbulent flow in the forward-facing step leads to a significant intensification of heat transfer (more than 2 times) compared to a single-phase air flow, all other things being equal. This effect is enhanced with an increase in the initial mass fraction of the water droplets.

Effect of sudden constriction of a flat duct on forced convection in a turbulent droplet-laden mist flow

Numerical modeling of the flow structure and heat transfer in a gas-droplet turbulent flow in a duct with forward-facing step is carried out. The two-dimensional RANS equations are used in the numerical solution. The Eulerian two-fluid approach is used for describing the flow dynamics and heat transfer in the gaseous and dispersed phases. The turbulence of the carrier phase is described using an elliptical Reynolds stress model with taking the presence of dispersed phase. It is shown that finely-dispersed droplets are involved in the separation recirculation motion of the gas phase. The addition of evaporating droplets to a single-phase turbulent flow in the forward-facing step leads to a significant intensification of heat transfer (more than 2 times) compared to a single-phase air flow, all other parameters being equal. This effect is enhanced with an increase in the initial mass fraction of the water droplets. Keywords: Numerical simulation, Reynolds stress transport model, forward-facing step, droplet evaporation, turbulence, heat transfer enhancement.

A systematic thermodynamic performance assessment of a solar-driven double-effect absorption chiller integrated with absorption energy storage

Sensible heat storage in the form of hot water is usually applied to solar-driven cooling systems to increase their cooling coverage. The main limitation of sensible heat storage is high thermal losses. A double-effect absorption chiller is operating in a typical generating temperature range of 150–180 °C and has a better performance compared to the single-effect type. Due to the high operating temperature range of the chiller, this study suggests the integration of an absorption energy storage (AES) on a double-effect chiller based on H2O-LiBr solution and driven by parabolic trough solar collectors. This is because in AES, heat is stored in the form of chemical potential and the issue of heat loss is minimal. The paper presents a model of the integrated system and its performance evaluation considering the undesirable solution crystallization phenomena under various operating conditions. The results show that, under certain operating conditions, there is a high risk of solution crystallization in the chiller during the charging operation when the solution distribution ratio is below 50 %. Moreover, the results indicate that when a solution with an initial lithium mass fraction of around 55 % in the strong tank is considered, there is a tendency for crystal formation in the solution storage tank and at some locations within the chiller. There is a potential risk of solution crystallization in the solution storage tank and at some locations within the chiller cycle when a solution with an initial LiBr mass fraction of 55 % and an initial mass of 64,000 kg is considered. Considering the weather data of Dhahran, the best-operating conditions are obtained at an initial solution mass of 64,000 kg in the storage tank, initial solution LiBr mass fraction of 0.5, and solution distribution ratio of 55 %. At these and other conditions detailed in the paper, the highest energy storage density is about 136.8 kWh/m3, with an average cooling effect of 1700 kW, overall solar system COP, and exergy efficiency of 0.985 and 0.067 respectively, during a fourteen-hour operation. The findings in this study provide useful information to researchers on sizing the storage unit considering the appropriate initial conditions to avoid solution crystallization.

Experimental study on transient heat transfer characteristics during the dropping of containment pressure

The reactor containment integrity and the pressure inside the containment are the most concern in the practical running process. To evaluate the transient heat transfer, non-equilibrium fraction (NEF) is proposed to represent the completed degree of transient condensation. An empirical correlation for NEF is developed and the fit error is within ±25% for 97% of results. Based on this, a simplified calculation model for transient heat transfer rate is also developed, then the transient condensation heat transfer coefficient (HTC) is obtained to characterize the intensity of transient heat transfer. The effect of mixed gas pressure, air mass fraction and temperature of cooling water on NEF and transient condensation HTC are discussed. The result indicates that the initial air mass fraction and initial gas-mixture pressure play an important role in transient-state heat transfer, and the influence of initial cooling water temperature can be ignored. This study aims to improve the understanding of transient-state heat transfer and provide guidance to practical engineering.

Time-Average Heat Transfer Coefficient for Steam-Air Condensation during the Dropping of Containment Pressure

The passive containment cooling system (PCCS) has been applied in the new generation nuclear power plant. Previous studies mainly focused on steady-state heat transfer, but the actual heat transfer of PCCS is the transient process. Thus, investigating the transient heat transfer during the containment pressure dropping is necessary. The present study proposes a time-average condensation heat transfer coefficient (time-average condensation HTC) to characterize the intensity of transient condensation heat transfer. The time-average condensation HTC is defined as the heat absorbed per unit heat transfer area and per unit wall subcooling in a unit time. Experiments were performed to research the effect of initial gas-mixture pressure and air mass fraction on transient HTC. The result showed that the more significant gas-mixture pressure and lower air mass fraction could promote the transient-state heat transfer, especially the low air mass fraction. Based on the experimental result, a detailed empirical correlation for the time-average heat transfer coefficient is developed with an error of ±20%. Another simplified empirical correlation that only includes air mass fraction is also proposed to predict the transient heat transfer roughly. Besides, research on self-sustaining stability is also conducted to evaluate the stable operation characteristic of PCCS. The system can respond quickly and then run to a new steady state after interference during the long-term operation of PCCS. The phenomenon above implies that PCCS has good self-sustaining stability.

Stratification and heat transfer characteristics of partially miscible lubricating oil-refrigerant mixtures during pool boiling

• Partially miscible oil-refrigerant mixture stratifies into four layers at boiling. • Newly proposed nucleate boiling model reflects effects of mixture stratifications. • Bubble dynamics and concentration diffusion determine mass transfer among layers. • Predicted thicknesses of separated layers agree well with observation results. • Mean deviation between predicted and measured heat transfer coefficients is 15.3% Applying partially miscible lubricating oil-refrigerant mixtures instead of completely miscible ones in refrigeration systems is a promising way to avoid the refrigerant insufficiency, and the application of partially miscible oil requires the clarity of nucleate pool boiling characteristics of partially miscible mixtures. As partially miscible mixtures at boiling conditions show an entirely different stratification process compared to completely miscible mixtures or partially miscible mixtures at non-boiling conditions studied by former researchers, the existing researches cannot be directly applied to evaluate pool boiling characteristics of the partially miscible mixture. The purpose of this study is to experimentally investigate and model both stratification and heat transfer performance of nucleate pool boiling of the partially miscible oil-refrigerant mixture. The stratification phenomenon at boiling of partially miscible mixtures is observed, and up to four layers (i.e., an oil-rich micro-layer, a middle oil-poor layer, a top oil-rich layer, and a gas phase layer) are found. The boiling process of partially miscible mixtures stratifying from a single layer into four layers is modelled, and calculation methods of mass transfer rates among layers are proposed. The model validation shows that predicted thicknesses of layers accord with experimental images, which covers the conditions of heat flux ranging from 5 to 15 kW/m 2 , initial oil mass fraction ranging from 5 to 15%, and initial height ranging from 80 to 120 mm. Predicted heat transfer coefficients agree with 80% of the experimental data within the deviation of ± 25%, and the mean deviation is 15.3%.

Signature of a chemical spread in the open cluster M37

ABSTRACT Recent Gaia photometry of the open cluster M37 has disclosed the existence of an extended main sequence turn-off – like in Magellanic clusters younger than about 2 Gyr – and a main sequence that is broadened in colour beyond what is expected from the photometric errors, at magnitudes well below the region of the extended turn-off, where neither age differences nor rotation rates (the candidates to explain the extended turn-off phenomenon) are expected to play a role. Moreover, not even the contribution of unresolved binaries can fully explain the observed broadening. We investigated the reasons behind this broadening by making use of synthetic stellar populations and differential colour–colour diagrams, using a combination of Gaia and Sloan filters. From our analysis, we have concluded that the observed colour spread in the Gaia colour–magnitude diagram can be reproduced by a combination of either a metallicity spread $\Delta \rm [Fe/H] \sim 0.15$ plus a differential reddening across the face of the cluster spanning a total range ΔE(B − V) ∼ 0.06, or a spread of the initial helium mass fraction ΔY ∼ 0.10 plus a smaller range of reddening ΔE(B − V) ∼ 0.03. High-resolution differential abundance determinations of a sizeable sample of cluster stars are necessary to confirm or exclude the presence of a metal abundance spread. Our results raise the possibility that also individual open clusters, like globular clusters and massive star clusters, host stars born with different initial chemical compositions.

Caffeine metastable zone width and induction time in anti-solvent crystallization

In this study, the anti-solvent approach was used to investigate caffeine's induction time and metastable zone width (MSZW). Chloroform is used as a solvent, and carbon tetrachloride is used as an anti-solvent. Initially, caffeine solubility data is gathered in the chloroform/carbon tetrachloride mixture at various chloroform mass fractions. Caffeine solutions with various concentrations were then created to determine the MSZW. The anti-solvent (carbon tetrachloride) was injected into the solution to achieve supersaturation. The metastable zone limit was obtained by adding the anti-solvent at a constant rate and using turbidity changes in the system. The time of induction in various supersaturations was also investigated. In this section, various concentrations of solutions were created. Then, the system was instantly supersaturated with an anti-solvent. The period between the addition of the anti-solvent and the change in the turbidity of the solution was known as the induction time. The visual technique is compared to the use of an online turbidimeter before starting induction time measurements, and it is shown that the induction times obtained with the online turbidimeter are shorter and more accurate. Additionally, the induction time was investigated by various supersaturations, and it was discovered that as the supersaturation approaches the metastable zone border, the induction time decreases. Furthermore, in the same supersaturations, the influence of mixing on induction time was explored, and it was revealed that the higher the stirring speed, the shorter the induction time. Finally, the interfacial energy of solid–liquid phase was calculated for two systems with different initial chloroform mass fractions. It was shown that a reduction in polarity of medium increases the interfacial energy.