Trypanosomiasis Infection Research Articles

APOLIPOPROTEIN-L1 RISK GENOTYPES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE REGARDLESS OF HYPERTENSION STATUS IN A TRYPANOSOMA BRUCEI GAMBIENSE ENDEMIC AREA

Objective: this study assessed the frequency of Apolipoprotein-L1 high-risk genotypes in an African rural endemic area to Trypanosoma Brucei Gambiense, and evaluated their association with arterial hypertension according to human African trypanosomiasis infection status. Design and method: The study enrolled 94 human African trypanosomiasis-infected and 144 non–infected participants in Masimanimba, the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Apolipoprotein-L1 high-risk genotype was the presence of two variants (G1G1, G2G2, or G1G2), and low-risk genotype the presence of 0 or 1 variant. Albuminuria was an albumin/creatinine ratio greater than or equal to 30 mg/g on freshly voided urine. We evaluated the association between Apolipoprotein-L1 risk genotypes and hypertension in human African trypanosomiasis-infected and non-infected participants. Results: The study population was aged 39.7 ± 17.1 years (females 62.2%). The frequency of high-risk genotypes among hypertensive participants was 14.3% in both human African trypanosomiasis - infected and uninfected individuals. Albuminuria (100% vs. 38.9%; p=0.09) was higher and estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate lower (88.5 vs. 106 ml/min/1.73 m2, p =0.066) in high-risk genotypes than low-risk carrying hypertensive participants. The respective values in non-hypertensive individuals were 100% vs. 37.5% (p=0.002) and 83 vs. 109.5 ml/min/1.73 m2 (p <0.001) for albuminuria and estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate. Conclusions: Apolipoprotein-L1 high-risk genotypes are associated with Chronic Kidney Disease regardless of the hypertension status in Human African Trypanosomiasis endemic area

Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors of Bovine Trypanosomosis in Nono District, West Shewa Zone, Ethiopia

Trypanosomosis is a major constraint to livestock production due to the challenge of vector control activities and drug resistance development in Sub-Saharan Africa particularly Ethiopia. The most common trypanosome species that affects cattle in Ethiopia are T. congolense. T. vivax and T. brucei. Therefore, A cross sectional study was conducted from November 2019 to December 2020 to determine the prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis Nono district of Western Shewa zone, Ethiopia. The study district was purposively selected and PAs were randomly selected to take sample for the study. For the prevalence study, dark phase contrast buffy coat examination and Giemsa stained thin blood smears were used and Chi- Square test was used to analysis the results. Out of a total of 384 randomly selected and examined cattle, an overall prevalence of 5.5% was recorded. Highest prevalence was recorded in Nano Halo 8(6.7%) followed by Biftu Jalala 6(5.5%) and Halo Dinki 7(4.5%) peasant associations. This study showed no significant difference (P>0.05) in trypanosomiasis infection rate among peasant associations and there was significant association between risk factors like age(X2= 6.97, P= 0.008), sex (X2= 5.38, P= 0.02), body condition (X2 = 6.09, P= 0.048) and PCV values (X2= 18.47, P= 0.000) of examined cattle. Out of species of trypanosome identified highest was T. Congolense was 13(61.91%), followed by T. Vivax was 7(33.33%) and 1(4.76%) were mixed. The present work evidenced that tsetse and trypanosomosis has continued to pose a considerable threat to cattle of the study area warranting an integrated control to safeguard cattle production and productivity.

Update of transmission modelling and projections of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis in the Mandoul focus, Chad

BackgroundIn recent years, a programme of vector control, screening and treatment of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis (gHAT) infections led to a rapid decline in cases in the Mandoul focus of Chad. To represent the biology of transmission between humans and tsetse, we previously developed a mechanistic transmission model, fitted to data between 2000 and 2013 which suggested that transmission was interrupted by 2015. The present study outlines refinements to the model to: (1) Assess whether elimination of transmission has already been achieved despite low-level case reporting; (2) quantify the role of intensified interventions in transmission reduction; and (3) predict the trajectory of gHAT in Mandoul for the next decade under different strategies.MethodOur previous gHAT transmission model for Mandoul was updated using human case data (2000–2019) and a series of model refinements. These include how diagnostic specificity is incorporated into the model and improvements to the fitting method (increased variance in observed case reporting and how underreporting and improvements to passive screening are captured). A side-by-side comparison of fitting to case data was performed between the models.ResultsWe estimated that passive detection rates have increased due to improvements in diagnostic availability in fixed health facilities since 2015, by 2.1-fold for stage 1 detection, and 1.5-fold for stage 2. We find that whilst the diagnostic algorithm for active screening is estimated to be highly specific (95% credible interval (CI) 99.9–100%, Specificity = 99.9%), the high screening and low infection levels mean that some recently reported cases with no parasitological confirmation might be false positives. We also find that the focus-wide tsetse reduction estimated through model fitting (95% CI 96.1–99.6%, Reduction = 99.1%) is comparable to the reduction previously measured by the decline in tsetse catches from monitoring traps. In line with previous results, the model suggests that transmission was interrupted in 2015 due to intensified interventions.ConclusionsWe recommend that additional confirmatory testing is performed in Mandoul to ensure the endgame can be carefully monitored. More specific measurement of cases, would better inform when it is safe to stop active screening and vector control, provided there is a strong passive surveillance system in place.Graphical

Spatial meta-analysis of the occurrence and distribution of tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomiasis in Cameroon over the last 30 years.

Abstract In Cameroon, >90% of cattle are considered exposed to African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) infection, with the presence of tsetse rendering cattle husbandry as a very difficult proposition. A systematic review of data on AAT and tsetse from 1990 to 2021 was conducted to develop a national atlas. The review identified 74 relevant scientific documents, with three pathogenic Trypanosoma species (Trypanosoma vivax, T. congolense and T. brucei s.l.) most frequently identified as causing AAT. Trypanosoma grayi, T. theileri, T. simiae and the human African trypanosomiasis causative agent T. brucei gambiense were also identified in a wide range of hosts. The tsetse fly fauna of Cameroon comprises nine species, with Glossina palpalis palpalis and G. fuscipes fuscipes the most widely distributed following their identification in seven and five of the 10 regions, respectively. Two species, Glossina nigrofusca and G. pallicera pallicera appeared to be rare and were restricted to both forest and protected areas. The presence of AAT is associated with the presence of tsetse in the livestock–human–wildlife interface of Cameroon. AAT occurs beyond the tsetse belts of the country where mechanical vectors are abundant. This study provides AAT and tsetse maps to support ongoing interventions in Cameroon.

Anti-trypanosomal, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum (W. Curt.: Fr) (Ganodermataceae) aqueous extract

Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) infection is caused by sub species of Trypanosoma brucei. The clinically licensed drugs have unacceptable toxicities and variable efficacies. The prognosis is influenced by the level of circulating free radicals and opportunistic infections. Many plants have been screened for activity in different models of HAT but the same is not true of mushrooms. This study screened the aqueous extract of the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum for trypanocidal, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Fruiting bodies of the mushroom were extracted sequentially with n – hexane, ethyl acetate, absolute ethanol and distilled water. The extracts were screened for phytochemical constituents and in vitro trypanocidal activity, the most active of which was further subjected to in vivo trypanocidal, anti-oxidant and anti-microbial screening. Alkaloids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, saponins and anthraquinones were present. In vitro trypanocidal screening showed the aqueous extract as the most active (IC50 = 14.65 μg/μl). It also dose-dependently inhibited parasitaemia and prolonged survival in parasite - infected mice (50, 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg). DPPH radical scavenging activity gave an IC50 of 131.00 ± 0.03 mg/ml. The extract demonstrated broad spectrum antimicrobial activity at 250 mg/ml. The fruiting bodies of G. lucidum is a potential source of trypanocidal compounds.

Trypanocidal function of Terminalia catappa leaf extract in Albino rat

Trypanocidal function of Terminalia catappa leaf extract in Albino rat

Bovine Trypanosomiasis Epidemiology and Tsetse Fly Density in Jimma Arjo District, East Wollega Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia.

BackgroundBovine trypanosomosis remains a vital livestock disease and constraint which is intimidating livestock health and production, regardless of ongoing tsetse and trypanosomosis control struggles in Jimma Arjo district, East Wollega zone, Ethiopia.MethodsA cross-sectional study was carried out with the objective of determining prevalence of cattle trypanosomiasis and apparent tsetse fly density in six randomly selected peasant associations of Jimma Arjo District from April 2018 to January 2019.ResultsFrom overall 819 arbitrarily selected cattle (n= 36; 4.39%), infection rate was recorded. Selected animals were invariably infested with different trypanosome species among which Tryapanosoma congolense (80.55%) was the most common, followed by T. vivax (11.11%), T. brucei (5.55%) respectively. Co-infection of T. vivax and T. congolense accounted for 2.77% of total infection rate. This finding indicates a statistically significant difference (p<0.05) among good, medium, and poor body condition animals with respect to Tryapanosomosis infection rate. Poor body condition animals were highly infected with trypanosome parasite as compared to medium and good body condition score animals. This study shows statistically significant association was obtained between mean packed cell volume (PCV) and trypanosomiasis infection rate (P<0.05). The lower mean PCV value (21.14%) were highly affected as compared with high mean PCV value animals (25.26%). The result of entomological survey, by using mono pyramidal traps deployed near animal grazing field and rivers of selected peasant association (PA), showed presence of four Glossina species namely Glossina morsitans, G. pallidipes, G. tachinoides, and G. fuscipes with high fly density per trap in Meta PA. Higher catches of G. fuscipes were registered as compared to other vectors.ConclusionGenerally, this study indicated the disease is still a main problem for livestock health and production in the study area and it necessitates disease and tsetse fly control.

Trypanosome SL-RNA detection in blood and cerebrospinal fluid to demonstrate active gambiense human African trypanosomiasis infection.

BackgroundSpliced Leader (SL) trypanosome RNA is detectable only in the presence of live trypanosomes, is abundant and the Trypanozoon subgenus has a unique sequence. As previously shown in blood from Guinean human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) patients, SL-RNA is an accurate target for diagnosis. Detection of SL-RNA in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) has never been attempted. In a large group of Congolese gambiense HAT patients, the present study aims i) to confirm the sensitivity of SL-RNA detection in the blood and; ii) to assess the diagnostic performance of SL-RNA compared to trypanosome detection in CSF.Methodology/Principal findingsBlood and CSF from 97 confirmed gambiense HAT patients from the Democratic Republic of Congo were collected using PAXgene blood RNA Tubes. Before RNA extraction, specimens were supplemented with internal extraction control RNA to monitor the extraction, which was performed with a PAXgene Blood RNA Kit. SL-RNA qPCR was carried out with and without reverse transcriptase to monitor DNA contamination. In blood, 92/97 (94.8%) HAT patients tested SL-RNA positive, which was significantly more than combined trypanosome detection in lymph and blood (78/97 positive, 80.4%, p = 0.001). Of 96 CSF RNA specimens, 65 (67.7%) were SL-RNA positive, but there was no significant difference between sensitivity of SL-RNA and trypanosome detection in CSF. The contribution of DNA to the Cq values was negligible. In CSF with normal cell counts, a fraction of SL-RNA might have been lost during extraction as indicated by higher internal extraction control Cq values.Conclusions/SignificanceDetection of SL-RNA in blood and CSF allows sensitive demonstration of active gambiense HAT infection, even if trypanosomes remain undetectable in blood or lymph. As this condition often occurs in treatment failures, SL-RNA detection in blood and CSF for early detection of relapses after treatment deserves further investigation.Trial registrationThis study was an integral part of the diagnostic trial "New Diagnostic Tools for Elimination of Sleeping Sickness and Clinical Trials: Early tests of Cure" (DiTECT-HAT-WP4, ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03112655).

Prevalence of Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma vivax in Lira District, Uganda.

Trypanosomes are the causative agents of animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT) and human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), the former affecting domestic animals prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa. The main species causing AAT in cattle are T. congolense, T. vivax, and T. b. brucei. Northern Uganda has been politically unstable with no form of vector control in place. The return of displaced inhabitants led to the restocking of cattle from AAT endemic areas. It was thus important to estimate the burden of trypanosomiasis in the region. This study was designed to compare the prevalence of animal African trypanosomes in cattle in Lira District using microscopy and polymerase chain reaction amplification (PCR) methods. In this cross-sectional study, a total of 254 cattle from the three villages of Acanakwo A, Barropok, and Acungkena in Lira District, Uganda, were selected by simple random sampling technique and screened for trypanosomiasis using microscopy and PCR methods. The prevalence of trypanosomiasis according to microscopic results was 5/254 (2.0%) as compared to 11/254 (4.3%) trypanosomiasis prevalence according to PCR analysis. The prevalence of trypanosomiasis infection in the animal studied is 11/254 (4.3%). Trypanosoma congolense was the most dominant trypanosome species with a proportion of 9/11 (81.8%), followed by T. vivax 1/11 (9.1%) and mixed infection of T. congolense/T. vivax1/11 (9.1%). Barropok village had the highest prevalence of trypanosomiasis with 6/11 (54.5%). There is a statistically significant relationship (OR = 6.041; 95% CI: 1.634-22.331; p < 0.05) between abnormal PCV and trypanosome infection. Polymerase reaction amplification was the most reliable diagnostic method due to its high sensitivity and specificity as compared to the conventional microscopic method. Polymerase reaction amplification appears to have adequate accuracy to substitute the use of a microscope where facilities allow. This study, therefore, underscores the urgent need for local surveillance schemes more especially at the grassroots in Uganda to provide data for reference guideline development needed for the control of trypanosomiasis in Uganda.

Shelter dogs as indicators for Trypanosoma cruzi infection in an urban area of Aracaju, Brazil

Shelters are places that receive certain species of domestic animals, mostly dogs and cats, that are normally abandoned. These animals are easy to handle because they are crowded and have limited movement. Dogs, due to the close relationship with humans, are considered the main domestic reservoirs in the peridomiciliary cycle of American trypanosomiasis infection in humans. Therefore, in several countries studies are carried out to assess the occurrence of infection in these animals. This work evaluated the occurrence of Trypanosoma cruzi in dogs from shelters in the city of Aracaju, Sergipe. This was an observational and cross-sectional study to detect the occurrence of T. cruzi in blood samples from shelter dogs using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with the TcZ1/TcZ2 primers. A total of 168 blood samples from dogs (104 females and 64 males) were collected and subjected to DNA and PCR extraction, and seventeen (10.1%) samples showed amplification of the product of the expected size. The TcZ1/TcZ2 primer pair used is considered specific for T. cruzi, and it is capable of amplifying all strains without amplifying other Trypanosoma species. The shelters evaluated had different physical infrastructure; animals positive for T. cruzi were found in all of them, as confirmed by sequencing. It is concluded that shelter dogs, as well as other domestic animals, can function as indicators of the occurrence of T. cruzi in Aracaju-SE, providing relevant epidemiological information for health surveillance and monitoring of Trypanosomatid infections.

Recent Theoretical Studies Concerning Important Tropical Infections.

Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) form a group of diseases that are strongly associated with poverty, flourish in impoverished environments, and thrive best in tropical areas, where they tend to present overlap. They comprise several diseases, and the symptoms vary dramatically from disease to disease, often causing from extreme pain, and untold misery that anchors populations to poverty, permanent disability, and death. They affect more than 1 billion people worldwide; mostly in poor populations living in tropical and subtropical climates. In this review, several complementary in silico approaches are presented; including identification of new therapeutic targets, novel mechanisms of activity, high-throughput screening of small-molecule libraries, as well as in silico quantitative structure-activity relationship and recent molecular docking studies. Current and active research against Sleeping Sickness, American trypanosomiasis, Leishmaniasis and Schistosomiasis infections will hopefully lead to safer, more effective, less costly and more widely available treatments against these parasitic forms of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) in the near future.

Trypanosoma cruzi vectors in a periurban area of the Western Brazilian Amazon.

ABSTRACTThe etiological agent of American trypanosomiasis is the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, typically transmitted by triatomines. The aim of this study was to investigate the triatomine fauna and trypanosomiasis infections in Acre State , Western Brazilian Amazon. Insect collection was performed by dissecting palm trees and installing traps. We found that T. cruzi infection rate was 24.5% and Rhodnius pictipes (57.1%) was the most abundant triatomine species. Health education as well as epidemiological and entomological surveillance are necessary to diagnose and prevent new cases of Chagas disease in the region.

Identification of Candidate Signature Genes and Key Regulators Associated With Trypanotolerance in the Sheko Breed.

African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) is caused by a protozoan parasite that affects the health of livestock. Livestock production in Ethiopia is severely hampered by AAT and various controlling measures were not successful to eradicate the disease. AAT affects the indigenous breeds in varying degrees. However, the Sheko breed shows better trypanotolerance than other breeds. The tolerance attributes of Sheko are believed to be associated with its taurine genetic background but the genetic controls of these tolerance attributes of Sheko are not well understood. In order to investigate the level of taurine background in the genome, we compare the genome of Sheko with that of 11 other African breeds. We find that Sheko has an admixed genome composed of taurine and indicine ancestries. We apply three methods: (i) The integrated haplotype score (iHS), (ii) the standardized log ratio of integrated site specific extended haplotype homozygosity between populations (Rsb), and (iii) the composite likelihood ratio (CLR) method to discover selective sweeps in the Sheko genome. We identify 99 genomic regions harboring 364 signature genes in Sheko. Out of the signature genes, 15 genes are selected based on their biological importance described in the literature. We also identify 13 overrepresented pathways and 10 master regulators in Sheko using the TRANSPATH database in the geneXplain platform. Most of the pathways are related with oxidative stress responses indicating a possible selection response against the induction of oxidative stress following trypanosomiasis infection in Sheko. Furthermore, we present for the first time the importance of master regulators involved in trypanotolerance not only for the Sheko breed but also in the context of cattle genomics. Our finding shows that the master regulator Caspase is a key protease which plays a major role for the emergence of adaptive immunity in harmony with the other master regulators. These results suggest that designing and implementing genetic intervention strategies is necessary to improve the performance of susceptible animals. Moreover, the master regulatory analysis suggests potential candidate therapeutic targets for the development of new drugs for trypanosomiasis treatment.

Sustainable Elimination (Zero Cases) of Sleeping Sickness: How Far Are We from Achieving This Goal?

The recent massive reduction in the numbers of fresh Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) infection has presented an opportunity for the global elimination of this disease. To prevent a possible resurgence, as was the case after the reduced transmission of the 1960s, surveillance needs to be sustained and the necessary tools for detection and treatment of cases need to be made available at the points of care. In this review, we examine the available resources and make recommendations for improvement to ensure the sustenance of the already achieved gains to keep the trend moving towards elimination.

Parasite specific 7SL-derived small RNA is an effective target for diagnosis of active trypanosomiasis infection.

Human and animal African trypanosomiasis (HAT & AAT, respectively) remain a significant health and economic issue across much of sub-Saharan Africa. Effective control of AAT and potential eradication of HAT requires affordable, sensitive and specific diagnostic tests that can be used in the field. Small RNAs in the blood or serum are attractive disease biomarkers due to their stability, accessibility and available technologies for detection. Using RNAseq, we have identified a trypanosome specific small RNA to be present at high levels in the serum of infected cattle. The small RNA is derived from the non-coding 7SL RNA of the peptide signal recognition particle and is detected in the serum of infected cattle at significantly higher levels than in the parasite, suggesting active processing and secretion. We show effective detection of the small RNA in the serum of infected cattle using a custom RT-qPCR assay. Strikingly, the RNA can be detected before microscopy detection of parasitaemia in the blood, and it can also be detected during remission periods of infection when no parasitaemia is detectable by microscopy. However, RNA levels drop following treatment with trypanocides, demonstrating accurate prediction of active infection. While the small RNA sequence is conserved between different species of trypanosome, nucleotide differences within the sequence allow generation of highly specific assays that can distinguish between infections with Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma vivax. Finally, we demonstrate effective detection of the small RNA directly from serum, without the need for pre-processing, with a single step RT-qPCR assay. Our findings identify a species-specific trypanosome small RNA that can be detected at high levels in the serum of cattle with active parasite infections. This provides the basis for the development of a cheap, non-invasive and highly effective diagnostic test for trypanosomiasis.

Patterns of tsetse abundance and trypanosome infection rates among habitats of surveyed villages in Maasai steppe of northern Tanzania

BackgroundChanges of land cover modify the characteristics of habitat, host-vector interaction and consequently infection rates of disease causing agents. In this paper, we report variations in tsetse distribution patterns, abundance and infection rates in relation to habitat types and age in the Maasai Steppe of northern Tanzania. In Africa, Tsetse-transmitted trypanosomiasis negatively impacted human life where about 40 million people are at risk of contracting the disease with dramatic socio-economical consequences, for instance, loss of livestock, animal productivity, and manpower.MethodsWe trapped tsetse flies in dry and wet seasons between October 2014 and May 2015 in selected habitats across four villages: Emboreet, Loiborsireet, Kimotorok and Oltukai adjacent to protected areas. Data collected include number and species of tsetse flies caught in baited traps, PCR identification of trypanosome species and extraction of monitored Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS).ResultsOur findings demonstrate the variation of tsetse fly species abundance and infection rates among habitats in surveyed villages in relation to NDVI and host abundance. Results have shown higher tsetse fly abundance in Acacia-swampy ecotone and riverine habitats for Emboreet and other villages, respectively. Tsetse abundance was inconsistent among habitats in different villages. Emboreet was highly infested with Glossina swynnertoni (68%) in ecotone and swampy habitats followed by G. morsitans (28%) and G. pallidipes (4%) in riverine habitat. In the remaining villages, the dominant tsetse fly species by 95% was G. pallidipes in all habitats. Trypanosoma vivax was the most prevalent species in all infected flies (95%) with few observations of co-infections (with T. congolense or T. brucei).ConclusionsThe findings of this study provide a framework to mapping hotspots of tsetse infestation and trypanosomiasis infection and enhance the communities to plan for effective control of trypanosomiasis.

Synthesis, in vitro and in vivo giardicidal activity of nitrothiazole-NSAID chimeras displaying broad antiprotozoal spectrum

We designed and synthesized five new 5-nitrothiazole-NSAID chimeras as analogues of nitazoxanide, using a DCC-activated amidation. Compounds 1–5 were tested in vitro against a panel of five protozoa: 2 amitochondriates (Giardia intestinalis, Trichomonas vaginalis) and 3 kinetoplastids (Leishmania mexicana, Leishmania amazonensis and Trypanosoma cruzi). All chimeras showed broad spectrum and potent antiprotozoal activities, with IC50 values ranging from the low micromolar to nanomolar order. Compounds 1–5 were even more active than metronidazole and nitazoxanide, two marketed first-line drugs against giardiasis. In particular, compound 4 (an indomethacin hybrid) was one of the most potent of the series, inhibiting G. intestinalis growth in vitro with an IC50 of 0.145μM. Compound 4 was 38-times more potent than metronidazole and 8-times more active than nitazoxanide. The in vivo giardicidal effect of 4 was evaluated in a CD-1 mouse model obtaining a median effective dose of 1.709μg/kg (3.53nmol/kg), a 321-fold and 1015-fold increase in effectiveness after intragastric administration over metronidazole and nitazoxanide, respectively. Compounds 1 and 3 (hybrids of ibuprofen and clofibric acid), showed potent giardicidal activities in the in vitro as well as in the in vivo assays after oral administration. Therefore, compounds 1–5 constitute promising drug candidates for further testing in experimental chemotherapy against giardiasis, trichomoniasis, leishmaniasis and even trypanosomiasis infections.

Cytokines responses to human African trypanosomiasis infection in Abraka, Nigeria

Background: The staging of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) has been greeted with different benchmarks ranging from white blood cell counts to the use of immune component profiles across regions. Objective: The aim of this study was to analyze an array of cytokines to identify potential markers that could be used in the staging of HAT in Nigeria. Methods: Sera and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of 35 HAT seropositives from Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria were subjected to cytokines (interleukin-10 [IL-10], tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-1α, IL-7, and IL-13) analysis using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Welch t-test and Tukey analysis of variance were used to analyze the data. Results: Comparing mean cytokine levels of weakly, moderately, and strongly positives and between as early and late stages results showed significantly depressed CSF levels of IL-1α and IL-7 while IL-10 was significantly elevated in the strongly positives as well as in the late stage. Conclusion: We strongly suggest that IL-10 could be playing a key role in the immuno-pathology of HAT, thus should be considered a biomarker for the late stage.

The role of domestic animals in the epidemiology of human African trypanosomiasis in Ngorongoro conservation area, Tanzania.

BackgroundTrypanosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by the trypanosome parasite and transmitted by the tsetse fly vector. In Sub-saharan Africa, both the human and animal variants of the disease are a great obstacle towards agriculture, development, and health. In order to better understand and therefore combat Trypanosomiasis, characterizing disease hotspots across species is critical.MethodsIn this study, 193 samples from cattle, sheep, and goats were collected from eight sites. Samples were taken from animals belonging mostly to Maasai herdsmen in the Ngorongoro Crater Conservation Area (NCA) and analysed for the presence of trypanosomiasis infection using PCR techniques. Those that tested positive for T. brucei parasite were further tested using SRA LAMP technique to check for T. brucei rhodesiense, the human infective subspecies of parasite.ResultsOur study found a high incidence of Trypanosoma brucei infections across species. Of animals tested, 47 % of cattle, 91.7 % of sheep, and 60.8 % of goats were infected. Most of the infections were of the T. brucei species. We also identified sheep and goats as carriers of the T. brucei rhodesiense subspecies, which causes acute human trypanosomiasis.ConclusionsTogether, these results point toward the need for stricter control strategies in the area to prevent disease outbreak.

Inventory of potential vectors of trypanosoma and infection rate of the Tsetse fly in the National Park of Ivindo, Gabon.

Trypanosoma's vectors distribution is poorly investigated in Gabon, where Trypanosomiasis historical foci exist. Thus, an active detection of Trypanosoma sp transmission needs to be assessed. The present study aims to identify potential vectors of Trypanosoma sp and to evaluate the infection rate of the Tsetse fly in an area of Gabon. An entomological survey was conducted in the National Park of Ivindo in May 2012 using Vavoua traps. All captured insects were identified. Tsetse were dissected and organs were microscopically observed to detect the presence of Trypanosoma sp. 247 biting flies known as vectors of Trypanosomiasis were caught including 189 tsetse flies, 32 Tabanid and 26 Stomoxys. Tsetse flies had the highest bulk densities per trap per day (ADT = 3 tsetse / trap / day), while the lowest density was found among Stomoxys (ADT= 0.41 Stomoxys / trap / day). The infection rate of flies was 6.3%. Infectious organs were midguts and to a lesser extent salivary glands and proboscis. The presence of Tsetse infected by Trypanosoma highlights an existing risk of trypanosomiasis infection in the National Park of Ivindo.