Nutrient Intakes Of Infants Research Articles

Food and nutrient intake of 6- to12-month-old infants fed formula or cow milk: A summary of four national surveys

Food and nutrient intakes of infants during the second 6 months of life were summarized with the use of four national surveys as the data base. Three of the surveys, the second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1976-1980), the Ross Nutrition Survey (1984), and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Nationwide Food Consumption Survey (1977-1978), summarized and compared the nutrient composition of the diets of infants fed formula with that of the diets of infants fed cow milk during the second 6 months of life. The Gerber Nutrition Survey (GNS) summarized the nutrient composition of the diets of infants fed formula, cow milk, or human milk, or a combination of these, during 1986. Iron-fortified formula with beikost provided adequate but not excessive intakes of all nutrients for infants during the second 6 months of life with the possible exception of calcium for older infants. In contrast to cow milk, formula provided readily absorbed and adequate iron, generous linoleic acid, and adequate but not excessive intakes of protein, phosphorus, sodium, and potassium. The distribution of energy between protein, carbohydrate and fat, and potential renal solute load was reasonable in infants fed formula. Cow milk with beikost provided low intakes of readily bioavailable iron and linoleic acid and high intakes of protein, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, and potential renal solute load during the second 6 months of life. The diets of infants fed low-fat milks were even lower in linoleic acid and higher in volume of food consumed, protein, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, and potential renal solute load than the diets of infants fed whole cow milk. Apparently, infants fed cow milk were treated differently than those fed formula (i.e., they were given more solids and table foods and less baby food at all ages and less volume of milk at 9 and 12 months of age). These data provided the basis for the development of practical suggestions for feeding infants during the second 6 months of life.

Milks and formulas for older infants

Older infants derive a substantial proportion of their nutrient intake from beikost (foods other than milk or formula). Milks and formulas fed to older infants should complement the nutrient intake provided by beikost without unduly stressing the infant's capacity to excrete waste products. Using contemporary data regarding nutrient intakes from beikost, I examined the total nutrient intake of 6- to 12-month-old infants. Nutrient intakes of infants fed beikost plus iron-fortified formulas designed for younger infants are entirely satisfactory. On the other hand, when cow milk is fed together with beikost, infants receive unnecessarily high intakes of protein and electrolytes, resulting in an unduly high renal solute load. Because cow milk is also prone to cause occult intestinal blood loss, it is not considered a suitable feeding for 6- to 12-month-old infants.

The automatic sampling shield: A device for sampling suckled breast milk

The automatic sampling shield uses the negative pressure exerted by the breast-feeding baby during sucking to withdraw a series of small samples from the milk stream. Shield performance was studied at four feeds for each of 13 babies. Acceptance of the shield was good (96% of feeds) and samples were obtained in 88% of feeds. Sample weight was large enough for micro-biochemical analysis of composition (median weight 1.3 g), without depriving the baby of important amounts of milk (median percentage of weight of milk intake was 4.3% and sample weight was less than 5 g in all cases). The shield should sample a constant proportion throughout the feed, in order to obtain a sample that is representative of the infant's nutrient intake. Fractional test-weighing of feeds showed a tendency for a larger proportion of the feed to be collected at slower flow rates. Modelling on the basis of the observed flow profiles in conjunction with a theoretical fat concentration profile showed that the observed ‘disproportionality’ would have over-estimated fat intake by a mean of 2.6% per feed (S.D. 9.1, range −18.9% to +16.9%). Using the shield in random sequence at two out of the first four feeds after 0800 h, showed that an infant's mean milk intake with the shield was on average 32% less than on control feeds. Allowing for possible compensation by the infant when control feeds followed low shield intakes, mean milk intakes with the shield were 17% smaller than without the shield.

Variation in nutrient intake of infants and its implications for collecting reliable dietary intake data.

Sources of variance in dietary intake data for infants in the fourth to sixth months of life were examined. Twenty-eight mothers of infants in the Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children gave 24-hr recall information on their infants' diets on 4 random days over approximately 1 month. ANOVA found no day of the week or sequence effects on nutrient variation. Variance was partitioned into between- and within-subject (residual) components. Interindividual variation exceeded intraindividual variation for all nutrients except vitamin C. Variance ratios ranged from 0.3 to 1.3. Calculations of 95% confidence limits for group and individual mean intakes indicated that, whereas a single recall would estimate the group mean within 20% for most nutrients, five recalls would be necessary for the same accuracy in individual means. Magnitude and patterning of variance components differ substantially from those found in studies of adults, suggesting that infant data collection strategies should be tailored to the unique nature of the infant diet.

Feeding low-fat milk during infancy.

Despite the widespread agreement that low-fat milk should not be used during infancy, there is a sizable portion of infants in the United States who were fed a diet that included low-fat milk (less than or equal to 2% fat). In 1985, 14% of infants 8 months old, 20% of infants 10 months old, and 32% of infants 12 months old were fed low-fat milk. The reasons given most often by mothers for low-fat milk use was their consideration that low-fat milk has less fat than whole cow's milk and that low-fat milk use was recommended/suggested by their physician. Nutrient intakes of infants fed low-fat milk are compared to those of infants fed whole cow's milk and infant formula. Except for fat, nutrient intakes of infants fed low-fat milk or whole cow's milk were similar. A majority of infants fed either low-fat milk or whole cow's milk received amounts of sodium, potassium, and chloride that exceeded the recommended safe and adequate ranges and amounts of iron below the RDA. These data are considered in relation to dietary requirements during infancy.

The effect of the WIC program on nutrient intake of infants, 1984.

The effect of the WIC program on nutrient intake of infants, 1984.

Feeding practices of the very low-birth-weight infant within the first year

Information summarized from early feeding practices of VLBW infants (1,500 gm. or less at birth) identified three prevalent practices which potentially could result in compromised nutrition for these babies: (1) Cereals were introduced at an early age. Feeding cereals before infants are developmentally ready may decrease formula intake or result in a forced feeding situation. (b) Two percent and skim milk were fed to approximately 50% of these infants within their first year of life. Feeding calorically dilute milk may reduce energy intake, as well as compromise the intake of essential fatty acids. (c) Whole cow's milk was introduced to some VLBW infants at an early age. The feeding of cow's milk to young infants without appropriate supplementation may predispose these infants to significant nutritional deficiencies and imbalances. Any one of these feeding practices could affect an infant's nutrient intake. If all three are encountered in the same baby, growth may be adversely affected. Whether increased attention to appropriate feeding practices during the first year of life would result in a more favorable growth outcome for VLBW infants is not known.

Food and nutrient intake of infants during the first 18 months of life

Food and nutrient intakes of normal infants, from 1 to 18 months, in Toronto and Montreal were determined in a longitudinal survey. The energy content of the diets, except for the first month, was less than the recommended daily intake (RDI). However, the infants were growing at normal rates, suggesting that the RDI is high. The mean intakes of most nutrients were consistently above RDI. Dietary iron was low from 12 months onwards, whereas, the intakes of Vitamin A, Vitamin C and sodium were high. Low iron intake was due mainly to low intake of iron-fortified infant cereals. Vitamin supplements, containing Vitamins A and C were largely unnecessary since food alone provided sufficient amounts to meet RDI. High sodium intake was related to consumption of salted table foods. Milk was the main source of energy, protein, fat and most other nutrients. Infant cereals, fortified with iron, calcium, phosphorous, thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin were important sources of these nutrients. Fruit and fruit juices were the primary sources of Vitamin C and vegetables the main sources of Vitamin A. Meat provided much of the dietary protein in the later infancy. The results stressed the importance of infant diets comprising the four basic food groups.

On the Nutrition Survey of the Nursery School Meals in Tochigi Prefecture

To know the actual nutrient intake of infants in the nursery school, a dietary survey was carried out four times in 1971, for a month's period in each time, at ten nursery schools in Tochigi Prefecture.The result showed that vitamin A, B1 and B2 intakes were lower than the dietary standard recommended by the Ministry of Health and Welfare. Vitamin A and B1 were only about half of their standard and B2 was about 70%. Nutrient intakes in the schools of urban areas and in the public nursery school were generally superior than that in the schools of rural areas and in the private ones.Moreover, this report mentioned and discussed about the results of inquires for the cooking method of side dishes, the number of dishes of the menu, and the contents of refreshments.

Review of studies of vitamin and mineral nutrition in the United States (1950–1968)

Summary Material available in the studies reviewed provides information on vitamin and mineral nutrition in the United States which indicates that: 1. A significant proportion of the population examined had intakes below one-half RDA and biochemical indices in the “deficient” range. 2. After puberty, except for vitamin C, male nutrient intakes are usually more adequate than those of females. This is especially true of iron. 3. Although the amount of data on nutrient intakes of infants is inadequate for sweeping generalizations, available reports suggest that appreciable percentages of infants are poorly nourished and infants from high socioeconomic groups may receive less adequate diets than those from low socioeconomic groups. 4. Dietary habits of the American public have become worse, especially since 1960. 5. The relationships between nutrient intake and socioeconomic factors are not always observable except perhaps for calcium, vitamin A and vitamin C. 6. There is a need for improved methodology for determining and reporting the nutritional status of individuals and population groups.