Nutrient Intakes Of Infants Research Articles

Breast milk composition and infant nutrient intakes during the first 12 months of life.

The objective of this study was to quantify human milk supply and intake of breastfed infants up to age 12 months. In addition, human milk composition was quantified per energetic macronutrient and fatty-acid composition in a subsample of lactating mothers. One hundred and seventy-four Italian breastfed children were followed using test-weighing and 3-day food protocols from birth to age 12 months. From a subsample of 30 mothers breast milk samples were collected at child ages one (T1), two (T2), three (T3) and six (T6) months, and were analyzed for the amount of protein, digestible carbohydrates, total lipids and fatty-acid composition. One hundred and forty-two (82%) filled in at least one 3-day food protocol within the first 12 months of life and complied with test-weighing of all milk feeds. The number of valid food protocols declined from 126 infants at 1 month to 77 at 12 months of age. Only galactose, non-protein nitrogen and protein decreased significantly from age 1 to age 6 months of lactation. Maternal body mass index and age affected fatty-acid levels in human milk. Median human milk intake decreased from 625 ml at T1, over 724 ml at T3 to 477 ml/day at T6. Average energy and %energy from protein intake per day increased from 419 kcal (s.d. 99) and 8.4% (1.0) at T1, respectively, to 860 kcal (145) and 16.1% (2.6) at T12. These data provide a reference range of nutrient intakes in breastfed infants and may provide guidance for defining optimal nutrient intakes for infants that cannot be fully breastfed.

Nutrient intakes of infants with atopic dermatitis and relationship with feeding type.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVESThe prevalence of atopic dermatitis in infants is increasing worldwide. However, the nutrient intake status of infants with atopic dermatitis has not been studied properly. This study was conducted to compare the nutrient intake status of infants in the weaning period with atopic dermatitis by feeding type.MATERIALS/METHODSFeeding types, nutrient intake status and growth status of 98 infants with atopic dermatitis from age 6 to 12 months were investigated. Feeding types were surveyed using questionnaires, and daily intakes were recorded by mothers using the 24-hour recall method. Growth and iron status were also measured.RESULTSThe result showed that breastfed infants consumed less energy and 13 nutrients compared to formula-fed or mixed-fed infants (p < 0.001). The breastfed group showed a significantly lower intake rate to the Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans than the other two groups (p < 0.001). In addition, they consumed less than 75% of the recommended intakes in all nutrients, except for protein and vitamin A, and in particular, iron intake was very low, showing just 18.7% of the recommended intake. There was no significant difference in growth by feeding type, but breastfed infants showed a significantly higher rate of iron deficiency anemia (p < 0.001).CONCLUSIONSContinuous management programs should be prepared for breastfed infants with atopic dermatitis, who are in a period when rapid growth takes place and proper nutrient intake is essential.

4.3 Reference nutrient intakes of infants, children and adolescents.

4.3 Reference nutrient intakes of infants, children and adolescents.

Introducing Solid Foods to Infants in the Asia Pacific Region

For infants’ optimal growth and development, the introduction of nutritionally suitable solid foods at the appropriate time is essential. However, less attention has been paid to this stage of infant life when compared with studies on breastfeeding initiation and duration. The practice of introducing solid foods, including the types of foods given to infants, in the Asia Pacific region was reviewed. In total nine studies using the same questionnaire on infant feeding practices were analysed to gain a better understanding of trends in the introduction of solid foods in this region. All studies showed less than optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding indicating an earlier time of introduction of solid foods than recommended by the WHO. Most mothers commonly used rice or rice products as the first feed. In many studies, the timing of introducing solid foods was associated with breastfeeding duration. Compared with the Recommended Nutrient Intakes for infants aged above six months, rice/rice products are of lower energy density and have insufficient micronutrients unless they have been fortified. Although the timing of introducing solid foods to infants is important in terms of preventing later health problems, the quality of the foods should also be considered. Recommendations to improve the introduction of solid foods include measures to discourage prelacteal feeding, facilitating breastfeeding education and providing better information on healthier food choices for infants.

Scientific Opinion on nutrient requirements and dietary intakes of infants and young children in the European Union

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) was asked to deliver a Scientific Opinion on the nutrient requirements and dietary intakes of infants and young children in the European Union. This Opinion describes the dietary requirements of infants and young children, compares dietary intakes and requirements in infants and young children in Europe and, based on these findings, concludes on the potential role of young-child formulae in the diets of infants and young children, including whether they have any nutritional benefits when compared with other foods that may be included in the normal diet of infants and young children. The Panel concluded on the levels of nutrient and energy intakes that are considered adequate for the majority of infants and young children, and evaluated the risk of inadequate nutrient intakes in infants and young children in living Europe. Dietary intakes of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), iron, vitamin D and iodine (in some European countries) are low in infants and young children living in Europe, and particular attention should be paid to ensuring an appropriate supply of ALA, DHA, iron, vitamin D and iodine in infants and young children with inadequate or at risk of inadequate status of these nutrients. No unique role of young-child formulae with respect to the provision of critical nutrients in the diet of infants and young children living in Europe can be identified, so that they cannot be considered as a necessity to satisfy the nutritional requirements of young children when compared with other foods that may be included in the normal diet of young children (such as breast milk, infant formulae, follow-on formulae and cow's milk).

Nutrient Intake of Infants and Toddlers: A Longitudinal View of Nutritional Adequacy

The purpose of this study is to describe nutrient intake from food, including breast milk and formula, in infants and toddlers, and identify deficiencies and excesses in the diet when compared to the Institute of Medicine’s Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs). The first 2 years of life are important to growth and development of children, but there is not much data available on this population. The Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study (2008) is a cross-sectional look at intake for children 0 to 48 months of age however there is no longitudinal view of infant and toddler nutritional sufficiency. This longitudinal cohort followed 60 infants and toddlers over 18 months. Three-day food records were collected at 6 weeks, and 6, 12, and 18 months of age and analyzed using Nutrition Data System for Research. The percentage of those who did not meet the DRIs and the percentage with intakes above the Upper Intake Levels (UL), for specific vitamins and minerals, were calculated. More than 50% of the sample did not meet DRI recommendations for: Magnesium, Iron, Zinc, Vitamins D, E, C, and B6, Thiamin and Folate at 6 weeks; Vitamin D at 6 months; Vitamins D and E at 12 months and Vitamins D, E, and K at 18 months. More than 50% of the sample exceeded UL recommendations for: Zinc at 6 and 12 months; and Phosphorus, Magnesium, Sodium, and Niacin at 18 months. Healthcare professionals may want to monitor the diet of infants and toddlers more closely for nutritional adequacy.

The effect of short‐term frozen storage of human milk on the validity of Vitamin A assays using the iCHECKTM rapid analyzer

BackgroundBreast milk retinol concentration is an indicator of both infant nutrient intake and population vitamin A status. Milk is easily and non‐invasively collected and rapid field methods for vitamin A analysis now exist.ObjectiveTo confirm or refute the assertion of restricting fluorescent assaying of milk vitamin A to “unfrozen” samples (Schweigert et al, Sight &amp; Life Magazine 2011 (2) 18–22).MethodsFull‐breast expression milk samples were collected in 21 women from Mam‐Mayan rural communities in the Western Highlands of Guatemala. A milk‐fat packing volume (creamatocrit), expressed in volume percent (vol%), was measured on a hematocrit microcentrifuge. Retinol concentration was assayed, both fresh and after 20–26 d at −20°C, on an iCHECKTM rapid field analyzer (Bioanalyt, Telbow, Germany).ResultsRespective retinol concentrations were 539±221 μg/L (fresh) and 528±205 μg/L (post‐freezing) (p=0.45), with a Pearson correlation coefficient (P) and Spearman coefficient (S) both of r=0.959 (p=0.001). The corresponding values for creamatocrit were 8.1±3.1 vol% vs 9.0±4.0 vol% (p=0.17), with r=0.774 (p=0.001)(P) and r=0.844 (p=0.001)(S).ConclusionsMilk samples can be stored for at least 3 wks without affecting the validity of iCHECKTMassays. Funded by Sight &amp; Life of Basel and Tufts University School of Medicine

Usual nutrient intakes of infants and toddlers in San Marcos, TX reflect regional differences in nutrition risk

Large, national studies demonstrate generally adequate nutrient intakes among infants and toddlers in the US; however, focused studies show certain racial, regional, and socioeconomic groups to be at increased risk for excessive or deficient intakes. The population of San Marcos, TX is primarily Hispanic, with a 50% incidence of overweight/obesity among middle school children. We collected feeding practice data and 24 h recalls using Nutrition Data System for Research for 203 infants and toddlers enrolled in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children. We used the National Cancer Institute (NCI) method to estimate usual intake of nutrients, and to assess the impact of characteristics such as race/ethnicity, caregiver education, and early introduction of complementary foods on usual nutrient intake. Mean caloric intake exceeded DRI recommendations by 50% and 16% among infants 4–6 and 6–12 mo, respectively. Usual intake of zinc exceeded the UL in all age groups. Usual intake of vitamin E was less than the RDA in 85% of toddlers 12–24 mo. Usual intake of calcium was less than the RDA in 100% of toddlers 12–24 mo. Consumption of cereal before age four months was negatively correlated with usual intake of vitamin B12 (P&lt;.05) and protein (P&lt;.05). Our results indicate that studies of small, regional populations can reveal relevant nutritional issues that may be obscured in national studies.

1451 Nutrient Adequacy of the Diets of Uae Infants and Toddlers

BackgroundCompared with other population subgroups, less is known about the dietary status of UAE infants and toddlers, especially how subgroups of different ages vary in their food consumption and nutrient...

Contribution of complementary food nutrients to estimated total nutrient intakes for urban Guatemalan infants in the second semester of life.

Complementary foods (CF) are introduced earlier or later than appropriate in developing societies. They often contribute poorly to overall adequate micronutrient intake during the critical period for growth and development, which constitutes the period from 6 to 12 months of life. The objective of this study was to determine the contribution of the CF nutrients to the total estimated nutrient intake in infants in the second semester of life. Three non-consecutive 24-hour recalls interviews were conducted with mothers of 64 infants, aged 6-12 months on enrolment, from a convenience sample in a marginal urban settlement in Guatemala City. Retrospective recording of early introduction of pre- and post-lacteal feeding and introduction of first foods and beverages was included. Human milk intakes were estimated by a model based on assumptions that human milk plus CF exactly satisfied the infant's daily energy needs. The WHO/FAO Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNI) were the standards for adequate nutrient consumption. Instances of exclusive breast feeding to 6 months were rare, with the introduction of CF earlier than recommended. Baby food in jars was mentioned most frequently as the first food offered. The contribution of CF increased with age through the second semester of life. CF contributed more of a nutrient than human milk in all instances. However,CF nutrient density for Ca, Fe, and Zn fell below international standard. Fortified sugar contributed excessive amounts of Vitamin A to the diets. We conclude that for most nutrients, intakes reached or exceeded recommendation levels, unusual within the CF experience in scientific literature.

New Findings from the Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study: Data to Inform Action

This guest editorial describes findings from FITS 2008, places the results in the context of other large-scale nutrition studies for infants and toddlers, and examines the potential impact on policymakers’ efforts to address childhood obesity.

Effect of the consumption of high energy dense and fortified gruels on energy and nutrient intakes of 6–10-month-old Vietnamese infants

The aim of this study was to test the ability of two new products, an instant infant flour and a food supplement containing amylases, to increase energy and micronutrient intakes of infants older than 6 months. Three groups of 48 infants were randomly constituted. Infants in groups 1 and 2 consumed at least twice a day gruel made either from the instant flour or from the food supplement. Infants from the control group received complementary foods prepared in the usual way. Each infant was surveyed during a whole day in order to measure feeding frequencies and characteristics as well as amounts of the different types of complementary foods consumed. Foods consumed by infants in the two experimental groups differed considerably in energy, micronutrient density and in consistency from the home-made complementary foods. Due to the incorporation of amylases, gruels made from the food supplement had a higher energy density, a more appropriate consistency and resulted in higher intakes per meal than gruels made from instant flour. In comparison with home-made complementary foods, both experimental products resulted in significantly higher energy and nutrient intakes. The two experimental products appeared to increase sufficiently both energy and nutrient intakes of infants to complement their breastmilk intake.

Soy- and Rice-Based Processed Complementary Food Increases Nutrient Intakes in Infants and Is Equally Acceptable with or without Added Milk Powder

Processed complementary foods (PCF) might mitigate several complementary feeding barriers in developing countries. Efficacy trials, however, have not shown substantial improvements in child growth, possibly due to inadequate formative research to assess acceptability and identify pitfalls. Milk powder might improve palatability of PCF but incurs a higher cost. We compared the acceptability of an instant soy-rice PCF without (SR) and with (SRM) milk powder. Best practices for formative evaluation of PCF are not established. We therefore compared findings from randomized trials of SR vs. SRM in 1-d sensory tests (n = 71 mother-infant dyads) vs. Trials of Improved Practices (TIPs), a 2-wk in-home mixed methods evaluation (n = 54 dyads). TIPs included interviews, disappearance rates, observations, and 24-h dietary recalls to assess acceptance, consumption of the 50 g/d ration, and impact on diet. Although mothers preferred SRM to SR in the sensory tests, children in the TIPs consumed >50 g/d of SR (87 ± 9 g/d) and SRM (89 ± 8 g/d) with no difference between the foods (P = 0.55). Despite some replacement of family food, energy (574 kJ/d; P < 0.001) and protein (19 g protein/d; P < 0.001) increased in both groups. Mothers’ preferences for milk, more sugar in SR, and preparation with hot water were concerns raised in the sensory tests that proved insignificant in TIPs. However, TIPs uncovered new concerns of overconsumption and food safety. We found milk did not improve the acceptability of the soy-rice PCF and recommend TIPs as a useful tool for formative research of PCF interventions.

Number of days needed to assess energy and nutrient intake in infants and young children between 6 months and 2 years of age.

To estimate the minimum number of days of recorded dietary intake needed to place infants and young children into thirds of a population distribution with an acceptable degree of accuracy. Dietary intake data collected from 5-day weighed food records for 72 infants and young children up to 2 y of age, collected during a cross-sectional study, were analysed to estimate the number of recording days necessary to assess intake of energy and 10 nutrients. Community study among healthy infants and children. Parents attended recruitment sessions in local community areas. In total, 72 subjects were entered into the study and all completed the 5-day dietary assessment period. A 5-day weighed record of children's dietary intake was made by the parents or regular carer. Mean within subject standard deviations were smaller than mean between subject standard deviations with respect to energy (778 vs 824 kJ/day), macronutrient subclasses: protein (8 vs 9.4 g/day); fat (9 vs 10 g/day); and carbohydrate (26 vs 29 g/day) and for specific micronutrients: calcium (163 vs 236 mg/day); phosphorus (143 vs 270 mg/day); magnesium (25 vs 43 mg/day); iron (2 vs 3 mg/day); zinc (1 vs 1.3 mg/day); ascorbic acid (27 vs 64 mg/day) and retinol equivalents (281 vs 424 microg/day). Estimated number of days of food records necessary to assess intake of energy, protein, fat and carbohydrate with acceptable degree of accuracy were 5,4,4 and 3, respectively. For all the micronutrients included in this analysis 2 days of recording were necessary. Compared with adults and older children, fewer days are needed to classify this age group into thirds of the distribution with an acceptable degree of accuracy according to intake of energy and specific nutrients. The data collection phase of this study was supported by a grant from the Procter and Gamble Company, Cincinnati, OH, USA.

Feeding Issues for Mothers of Very Low-Birth-Weight, Premature Infants Through the First Year

Adequate feeding is an area of concern for both clinicians and parents of very low-birth-weight, premature infants while in the special-care nursery and through at least the first postterm year. How feeding issues are labeled or described may make a difference in the effectiveness with which they are addressed by families and professionals. Internal working models of parenting offer a framework to explore meaning (goals, expectations, and intentions) and to evaluate progress in addressing feeding issues, viewed from the perspective of both the nurse and the family. Three case studies are presented to illustrate the framework, as used by nurses, to assess the adequacy of the infant's nutrient intake in the first year post birth. Questions are raised for further study.

Nutrient intakes of infants and toddlers

Objectives To assess the nutrient adequacy of the diets of US infants and toddlers 4 to 24 months of age. Design Descriptive analysis of the usual nutrient intakes of infants and toddlers using 24-hour recall data from the 2002 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study. Subjects A national random sample of 3,022 infants and toddlers, with 2 days of recall available for 703 sample members. Sample sizes by age were: infants 4 to 6 months (n=862), infants 7 to 11 months (n=1,162), and toddlers 12 to 24 months (n=998). Statistical analyses performed Using the personal computer version of the Software for Intake Distribution Estimation, we estimated (where applicable) the percentage of infants and toddlers with usual intakes below the estimated average requirement, compared the means of usual nutrient intake distributions with adequate intake levels, and compared the 99th percentile of usual intake distributions with tolerable upper intake levels. Results For infants under 12 months of age, mean usual intakes exceeded the adequate intake for all nutrients. For toddlers 12 to 24 months of age, the estimated prevalence of inadequacy was low for most nutrients; however, 58% of toddlers had usual vitamin E intakes less than the estimated average requirement. Mean energy intake exceeded the estimated energy requirement by 10% for infants 4 to 6 months, 23% for infants 7 to 12 months, and 31% for toddlers 12 to 24 months of age. The discrepancy between mean energy intake and the estimated energy requirement for infants 4 to 6 months of age was larger for infants fed solids than for infants consuming only breast milk or formula. Fiber intakes of toddlers were below the adequate intake. Applications Studies should examine whether parents overreport foods consumed by infants and toddlers, and whether infants and toddlers are consuming more energy than required. Additional research is indicated to substantiate some of the new Dietary Reference Intakes for infants and children 1 to 3 years of age.

Longitudinal study of energy and nutrient intakes for infants from low-income, urban families

To assess the energy and nutrient intakes of healthy infants from low-income families and to compare intakes with current recommendations. We interviewed mother-infant pairs longitudinally when the infants were 3, 6, 9, 12, 18 and 24 months old. Food intake data were obtained by 24-hour dietary recalls. Selected nutrient intakes were calculated and compared with the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). Infants were the offspring of low-income, pregnant women recruited at the Albany County Department of Health, New York for the Albany Pregnancy and Infancy Lead Study, a prospective investigation of factors related to blood lead levels, including nutrition. Interviews were conducted during paediatric clinic visits. Means and standard deviations were used to describe energy and micronutrient intakes for age groups. The probability approach was utilised to examine the prevalence of inadequate intakes. Mean energy and nutrient intakes generally met or exceeded the RDA. The exceptions were vitamin D and zinc for which observed means were below the RDA at several data points. Protein consumption was exceptionally high in this sample. The highest estimated prevalences of inadequate intakes were observed for iron, zinc and vitamin D at the older ages. This study identified several potential concerns about the diets of infants during the transition from infant food and formula to table foods. Low intakes of vitamin D, zinc and iron, especially at 12 and 18 months, were observed. High protein intakes were noted at all ages.

Nutrient Intake of Infants Hospitalized with Lower Respiratory Tract Infections

The respiratory syncytial virus is the most common cause of acute lower respiratory tract infections in infants and children worldwide (1). These infections generate a predictable metabolic response that includes the synthesis of acute phase proteins, immune factors, and hormones; increased oxygen consumption; and utilization of certain vitamins and minerals (2). Often, these metabolic changes are accompanied by a decrease in food intake (3–5), forcing the body to rely on its stored nutrients to meet the metabolic demands of an acute phase response. If this condition persists, nutrients may become depleted, impairing the body’s ability to mount an effective immune response (6,7). Infants less than 2 years of age and those with chronic medical conditions are especially vulnerable (8). There is little information about the nutritional intake of infants who are hospitalized with acute infections. The objectives of this study were: to describe the dietary intakes of a group of critically ill US infants with viral lower respiratory tract infections before and during the acute illness, and to compare average nutrient intakes with current nutrient intake recommendations.

A comparative study of the weaning practices and growth pattern in 3–24 month old infants fed formula and food in Nitel Health Centers and PHC's of Mushin Local Government area of Lagos, Nigeria

A cross sectional study of the infants seen in Nitel Health Centers and Primary Health Care Centers in Mushin Local Government Area of the Lagos Metropolis was carried out. Results on growth and nutrient intake in infants in the second half of infancy fed human milk, formulas or weaning foods have not been previously studied in this community. 297 infants aged 3 to 24 months were studied comparing their nutrient intake as it affects their growth. Their anthropometric measurements and distribution of the Z-scores of weight for age, height for age, and weight for height were assessed in relation to the NCHS reference population growth chart. Infants from the Nitel Health Centers had higher mean values for all the anthropometric variables (height, weight, mid upper arm circumference, head circumference and chest circumference). The mean values for the other variables were higher in this group except for Hb which was lower in infants of Nitel. In the overall population, 7.4% were found to be underweight (Z-score of weight for age <-2SD), 12.8% were stunted (Z-score height for age <-2SD) and 7.4% wasted (Z-score of weight for height <-2SD). There was strong association of nutrient intake with growth but no adverse effect. Early introduction of formula to the infants in Mushin revealed a mild degree of stunting. A proportion of infants were stunted in their 2nd year of life. The results of this study emphasize the need to deal with nutritional problems in the country. Mothers should be educated on the appropriate feeds for each stage in the growth of the infant and the appropriate time for introduction of such foods. More studies on the local foods are needed to broaden the menu list of available weaning feeds.

Low biotin content of infant formulas made in Japan

Since minor vitamins such as biotin are not yet registered as food additives in Japan, these cannot be used to supplement infant formulas or foods, despite their nutritional value. Therefore, the biotin contents of infant formulas made in Japan were determined and compared with those from the United States (US). The Japanese products were obtained from five companies, while the US products were limited to those from one company. The average content of total biotin in 11 Japanese products for nursing of normal infants (standard formulas) was 1.04 μg/100 kcal (0.69 μg/100 ml), which was significantly lower than that in two US products (2.56 μg/100kcal, 1.71 μg/100 ml). The total biotin content in 26 Japanese infant formulas specially prepared for medical treatment and prevention of disease (special formulas) was 0.45 μg/100 kcal (0.30 μg/100 ml) on average. This was less than a fifth of the level in the three US products (1.82 ug/ 100 kcal, 1.22 μg/100 ml). There was no difference in the proportion of free biotin (the percent of active biotin to total biotin) between the Japanese and US standard formulas (67.7% and 77.2%, respectively). However, in special formulas the mean proportion of the free biotin in the Japanese products (29.4%) was lower than that in the US products (71.2%). The nutrient intake of infants is limited to the maternal milk and/or infant formulas. These findings suggest that Japanese infant formulas should be appropriately improved to maintain growth and good health. Biotin should be registered as a food additive in Japan so that it can be used to fortify infant formulas.