Inexpensive Food Research Articles

The economics of obesity: dietary energy density and energy cost

Highest rates of obesity and diabetes in the United States are found among the lower-income groups. The observed links between obesity and socioeconomic position may be related to dietary energy density and energy cost. Refined grains, added sugars, and added fats are among the lowest-cost sources of dietary energy. They are inexpensive, good tasting, and convenient. In contrast, the more nutrient-dense lean meats, fish, fresh vegetables, and fruit generally cost more. An inverse relationship between energy density of foods (kilojoules per gram) and their energy cost (dollars per megajoule) means that the more energy-dense diets are associated with lower daily food consumption costs and may be an effective way to save money. However, economic decisions affecting food choice may have physiologic consequences. Laboratory studies suggest that energy-dense foods and energy-dense diets have a lower satiating power and may result in passive overeating and therefore weight gain. Epidemiologic analyses suggest that the low-cost energy-dense diets also tend to be nutrient poor. If the rise in obesity rates is related to the growing price disparity between healthy and unhealthy foods, then the current strategies for obesity prevention may need to be revised. Encouraging low-income families to consume healthier but more costly foods to prevent future disease can be construed as an elitist approach to public health. Limiting access to inexpensive foods through taxes on frowned upon fats and sweets is a regressive measure. The broader problem may lie with growing disparities in incomes and wealth, declining value of the minimum wage, food imports, tariffs, and trade. Evidence is emerging that obesity in America is a largely economic issue.

Applying the concepts of extended products and extended enterprises to support the activities of dynamic supply networks in the agri-food industry

During the last decade industry focus has been on the development and integration of processes in the context of the food supply chain. As a result, the food supply chain can be considered highly integrated where information technology streamlines the use of data and information. Presently the focus is shifting to the supply chain that sits in front of the food industry; the animal feed supply chain. The idea is to integrate all the processes within this supply chain and to connect the two supply chains (food and feed) in such a way that processes that cross-boundaries are completely integrated. In response to this, business strategies must now focus not only on traditional economical and technological interests, but also on topical issues such as safety of food and animal feed products, environmentally friendly production and still provide consumers with safe, quality and inexpensive food. This paper introduces the agri-food industry concentrating specifically on the animal feed and food industries. It presents the business processes, strategies, and activities in supply chain management that are acting as an antecedent factor in the adoption and participation of eBusiness. The paper will also introduce eBusiness models for these industries and the implication of these models is that over time, the organisation will learn more about the external and internal environments in which its supply chain operates its own and its partners business, and the key functional areas associated with their business. As a result, the organisation will focus more on their business and eBusiness strategies and co-operate with its partners in identifying areas, which need improving across their supply chain.

Modifying the Environment to Reverse Obesity

There is a growing realization that the changes we have made to our environment over the past several decades have unintentionally facilitated weight gain in the population and contributed to the high rates of obesity currently seen in most countries around the world. Over the centuries, we have shaped our environment to provide us with an increasingly better quality of life, which in part consists of a constant, available, inexpensive food supply and technology to allow us freedom from physical labor. Because the obesity epidemic was an unintended consequence of this shaping of our society in a quest for the “good life,” it likely will be necessary to modify the environment we have created to permanently reduce the prevalence of obesity in the population.

An inexpensive food cup for use in a commercially available food monitoring system

The microstructure of feeding in rats can be probed using a variety of protocols that employ videotape-based ratings, pellet feeders, and/or laboratory balances. A recent commercial product (BioDAQ, Research Diets, New Brunswick, NJ) uses a metal food hopper placed on a load cell to monitor daily food pellet consumption. In this system, movements of the hopper during eating and the cessation of hopper movements after eating are combined with momentary hopper weights for subsequent analyses of daily meal patterns. Our laboratory has devised an improved food cup for the BioDAQ system that is easily balanced, minimizes spillage, and is compatible with either powdered chow diets or nonpelleted soft diets (e.g., a high-fat diet). In the present paper, we describe the methods used to fabricate this food cup and present data illustrating its use in meal pattern analyses for rats fed either a ground laboratory chow or a 33% high-fat diet.

Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease.

Obesity is rampant in the United States and is becoming increasing common worldwide. The increase in obesity prevalence is due to two major factors, plentiful supplies of inexpensive foods and sedentary jobs. Both are driven in no small part by technology. Thanks to technology, production of large quantities of cheap food is possible, and manual work is rapidly disappearing. In areas of the world in which these advances have not penetrated, obesity is not a significant public health problem. Thus, obesity is a direct result of technological advance and represents a major challenge for technological society. Obesity must also be recognized as a product of free society in which a multitude of food choices and job opportunities are available. A public health approach to the problem of obesity that restricts choice will not be acceptable to a free society. This fact puts increased responsibility on the individual to recognize the underlying causes of obesity and modify behavior to reduce the personal burden of obesity. That obesity extracts a social cost is well recognized. The costs in physical health are less well recognized by the general public. The foremost physical consequence of obesity is atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) (1). A substantial portion of the ASCVD resulting from obesity is mediated by type 2 diabetes. But obesity is accompanied by several other risk factors for ASCVD. The sum of the risk factors that predisposes to ASCVD goes by the name of metabolic syndrome. In addition, obesity is accompanied by other medical complications other than ASCVD and diabetes; these include fatty liver, cholesterol gallstones, sleep apnea, osteoarthritis, and polycystic ovary disease. These disorders are commonly found in individuals who carry the metabolic syndrome. Obesity can be called an underlying risk factor for cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) (2). It is called this because it raises the risk for ASCVD through other risk factors. The latter include the major risk factors (hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, hyperglycemia) and emerging risk factors (atherogenic dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, proinflammatory state, prothrombotic state). The relationship of obesity to major and emerging risk factors varies, depending on the genetic and acquired characteristics of individuals. The majority of obese persons who develop ASCVD typically have a clustering of major and emerging risk factors (metabolic syndrome). The constellation of major and emerging risk factors that make up the metabolic syndrome can be called metabolic risk factors (3). This article will first examine the variable characteristics of obesity; this will be followed by an examination of the relation of obesity to the metabolic syndrome; and finally, the relation of the metabolic syndrome to ASCVD will be reviewed. Categories of obesity Obesity can be defined as an excess of body fat. A surrogate marker for body fat content is the body mass index (BMI), which is determined by weight (kilograms) divided by height squared (square meters). In clinical terms, a BMI of 25–29 kg/m 2 is called overweight; higher BMIs (30 kg/m 2 ) are called obesity (4). A better way to define obesity would be in terms of percent total body fat (4). This can be measured by several methods (skin-fold thickness, bioelectrical impedance, underwater weighing). In terms of percent body fat, obesity can be defined as 25% or greater in men and 35% or greater in women. The measurement of percent body fat is rarely used in clinical practice, however, because of inconvenience and cost.

Overlapping agendas or serendipitous synergism

Overlapping agendas or serendipitous synergism

Transfer Technology in the Poultry System

Our topic for this combined workshop is the transfer of technology in the poultry system. Extension is the educational arm of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Land Grant University (LGU) system and is the traditional mechanism to transfer technology to farmers. Adoption and adaptation of technology, particularly in the areas of nutrition, disease control, and genetics, have propelled the poultry industry from the lowly status of “women's pin money” to a highly concentrated, specialized multibillion dollar industry. The poultry industry thus satisfies society's demand for a wide variety of and dependable supply of safe, inexpensive food that is of consistently high quality.

Preparing the veterinary profession for corporate and trade issues in the Americas: proceedings of a conference on synergism and globalization, Santiago, Chile, May 6-8, 2001.

The complex and rapid-paced development of international trade, coupled with increasing societal demands for the production not only of abundant and inexpensive food, but also of food that is safe and has been raised in a humane and environmentally friendly manner, demands immediate attention from the veterinary community. The new culture of global trade agreements, spurred by the development of the WTO, dictates massive changes and increasing integration of public and private sectors. This is a huge growth area for our profession and will require individuals with a skill set we do not yet provide in our educational framework. In North America, veterinary education is parochial and focused on specialization. This strong orientation toward companion animals fails to provide adequate training for those interested in acquiring the necessary skills for the emerging area of globalization and trade. In South America, curricula are less harmonized with one another and there is tremendous variation in degree programs, rendering it difficult to ascertain whether veterinarians are prepared to assume decision-making responsibilities regarding international transport of food. If we do not begin to prepare our graduates adequately for this emerging market demand, the positions will be filled by other professions. These other professions lack broad-based scientific knowledge about animal physiology and disease causation. Decisions made without adequate background could have devastating consequences for society, including incursions of unwelcome diseases, food safety problems, and public health issues. To prepare our new veterinary graduates for the future and this emerging market, it is important to nurture a global mindset within our academic communities and to promote communications, languages, and an interdependent team mentality. Areas of technical expertise that need a place, perhaps a parallel track, in the curriculum include production medicine, public health, food safety, and international veterinary medicine. The major trade corridors of the future regarding animal-based protein flow between North and South America. It is absolutely essential that we find areas of consensus and deficiencies so that we can harmonize our trade agreements and ensure adequate flow of safe food products from one continent to the other.

Seaweed prevents breast cancer?

To investigate the chemopreventive effects of seaweed on breast cancer, we have been studying the relationship between iodine and breast cancer. We found earlier that the seaweed, wakame, showed a suppressive effect on the proliferation of DMBA (dimethylbenz(a)anthracene)‐induced rat mammary tumors, possibly via apoptosis induction. In the present study, powdered mekabu was placed in distilled water, and left to stand for 24 h at 4°C. The filtered supernatant was used as mekabu solution. It showed an extremely strong suppressive effect on rat mammary carcinogenesis when used in daily drinking water, without toxicity. In vitro, mekabu solution strongly induced apoptosis in 3 kinds of human breast cancer cells. These effects were stronger than those of a chemothera‐peutic agent widely used to treat human breast cancer. Furthermore, no apoptosis induction was observed in normal human mammary cells. In Japan, mekabu is widely consumed as a safe, inexpensive food. Our results suggest that mekabu has potential for chemoprevention of human breast

Radioactivity in Brazilian Manioc-root Flour

The results are presented of a nation-wide survey programme aimed at determining the radioactivity in a widely used, inexpensive Brazilian food. Well-established nuclear techniques were employed to measure the specific activities of 226 Ra, 228 Ra, 40 K, and 137 Cs in fifty-six samples of manioc-root flour gathered in 20 Brazilian states. Whereas the activities for 40 K were much the same as those found in other vegetables, the activities of radium proved to be in significant amounts: 0.2-7.2 Bq.kg -1 for 226 Ra, and 0.3-34 Bq.kg -1 for 228 Ra. Annual effective doses caused by the ingestion of manioc flour were also assessed taking into account the diet figures available for ten Brazilian states. For the adult public of those states, the radium ( 226 Ra + 228 Ra) present in manioc will be responsible for average doses ranging from 3 to 106 μSv.yr -1 . However, low-income people living in the states of Rio Grande do Norte, Ceara and Paraiba (northeast Brazil) could receive doses in the range from 28 to 893 μSv.yr -1 .

The prevalence of anemia among clients of family planning clinics in Egypt

A hospital-based study of the prevalence of anemia among clients of family planning clinics in Egypt was carried out in collaboration with a number of university hospitals. The study aimed to estimate the prevalence of anemia among the clients of family planning clinics and to determine the underlying risk factors for developing anemia in this population, with special emphasis on the role played by different contraceptive methods. The study was designed as a cross-sectional study and was carried out in seven family planning clinics of Alexandria, Mansoura, Cairo, Al-Azhar, Ein Shams, El Minia, and Assiut University Hospitals during August 1993 to March 1994. A total of 1039 clients of family planning services who fulfilled the selection criteria were recruited in the study. A standardized interview questionnaire was used to record pertinent information on study subjects. As well, laboratory investigations were made to determine the hemoglobin level and the presence of bilharzial infection. The prevalence of anemia in the studied population reached 49.6%, with variations among centers. Anemia was more prevalent among urban compared to rural residents (55.7% and 42.0%, respectively). Anemia was more common in Lower Egypt, followed by urban governorates and Upper Egypt. Other independent determinants associated with high prevalence of anemia included: young age (20–39 years), lack of obesity, heavy menstrual periods, low parity, use of the intruterine device (IUD), low intake of iron-rich foods, and bilharzial infection. Use of IUD were significantly associated with the highest prevalence of anemia among all contraceptive users (64.9%), and IUD users had the lowest level of hemoglobin compared to nonusers or users of other methods. Given the increasing prevalence of IUD use in Egypt, a major recommendation of this study would be to introduce the prescription of iron supplementation tablets as part of IUD services provided in family planning clinics, both to new users and to current users. Other recommendations include early treatment of menstrual disturbances and parasitic infections (including schistosomiasis), as well as improvement of the nutritional status of women at high risk for developing anemia, through mass media campaigns addressing dietary patterns and the health benefits of intake of iron-rich, inexpensive food items.

Local strategies to support child nutrition

Breast feeding is the best source of complete nutrition for the first 4–6 months of life. Weaning foods should be selected so as to represent all food groups. Locally available and inexpensive foods can be prepared for consumption by young children. Traditional methods can be adopted to clean modern technology so as to ensure wholesome foods that are not contaminated.

Impact of a health education program to promote consumption of vitamin A rich foods in Bangladesh

Although Bangladesh has an abundant supply of inexpensive foods rich in beta-carotene close to 100 children go blind each day as a result of clinical vitamin A deficiency. This study evaluated the effectiveness of health education campaigns conducted in northern Bangladesh an area with a high incidence of xerophthalmia during 1986-89 to promote consumption of local foods rich in vitamin A. Community participation was key and local working teams monitored program approaches. In addition to the mass media two distinct types of communication channels were utilized: channel 1 communicating to individuals and groups through direct contacts (e.g. women volunteers project workers health workers rural leaders) and channel 2 one-way communication to audiences in community settings (e.g. schools folk singers village film showings training at the village level). An analysis of food consumption data for 2011 households in the 3 preceding days indicated campaign exposure had an overall positive effect on consumption of dark green leafy vegetables. The most effective communication channels were those that targeted individuals and groups in a traditional fashion (channel 1). However entertainment approaches such as folk singers and film showings had a weaker association with higher consumption of vitamin A-rich vegetables than use of women volunteers. Maternal illiteracy and low household income were major obstacles to comprehension and implementation of messages about proper nutritional habits through channel 2 but not channel 1 methodologies. Finally consumption of protein items was more common among those informed through the mass media.

Local Relief during the Great Irish Famine, 1845–1850: The Case of Castlebar, County Mayo, 1846–1847

LOCAL RELIEF DURING THE GREAT IRISH FAMINE, 1845–1850: THE CASE OF CASTLEBAR, COUNTY MAYO, 1846–1847 MICHAEL O’MALLEY the objective of this paper is to contrast the relief efforts of the British government with those of locals leaders including Church of Ireland and Catholic clergymen in Castlebar, County Mayo, during the Great Irish Famine. Between 1845 and 1850, almost every harvest of potatoes, the subsistence food for most of Ireland’s inhabitants before the famine, failed partially or totally. The potato crops’ destruction resulted in starvation and death throughout Ireland. During the crisis, both the British government and local leaders in Ireland attempted to reduce the level of suffering by providing famine relief. Five factors determined the effectiveness of these relief efforts: the relief providers’ ideology; their preferred forms of relief; their initiative in establishing effective relief schemes before starvation took place; their attitude toward the poor; and their willingness to prioritize famine relief. The government and the clergy took different stands on these issues. The government adhered to a free-trade policy and argued that direct relief would stifle private enterprise. It favored indirect relief in the form of public works to direct relief in the form of free food. In addition, the government feared that direct relief would produce a dependent public. Finally , the government believed that its first priority was to protect the immediate interests of England. As a result, the government failed to provide adequate relief in famine-stricken Ireland. In contrast, Church of Ireland and Catholic clergy in Castlebar viewed the problem of famine relief from a local perspective. Their primary goal during the late 1840s was to prevent starvation among their neighbors. As a result, the clergy favored direct relief , in the form of inexpensive food, and established soup kitchens, which provided sustenance to the poor as soon as famine conditions appeared locally in late 1846. LOCAL RELIEF DURING THE GREAT IRISH FAMINE 109 During the Great Famine, British government administrators—including Sir Charles Trevelyan, permanent secretary of the treasury, and Thomas Larcom, a poor law commissioner—criticized local relief efforts and praised those the government provided. Trevelyan argued that the government’s soup kitchens, which operated for a brief period in 1847, saved millions of lives during the famine.1 Larcom claimed that the middle classes within Irish society did not try to relieve starvation during the famine.2 These views were echoed in English newspapers such as The London Times, which reported that farmers were “capable of relief by the smallest exertion” and that this lack of generosity was “absolutely without parallel in the history of civilized nations. . . .”3 The newspaper also accused the Irish poor of being too indolent to give their dead a “decent Christian burial” and pointed out that “the brutality of piratical tribes sinks to nothing compared with the absolute inertia of the Irish in the midst of the most horrifying scenes.”4 Revisionist historians such as Roy Foster sympathize with Trevelyan’s interpretation of the British government’s role in the famine.5 According to Foster, the British did not cause mass starvation during the late 1840s. In addition, he believes that an evaluation of Britain’s famine policy must include a discussion of the ability of the state to relieve poverty as well as an analysis of the attitudes of mid-nineteenth-century English political leaders toward the poor.6 Foster asserts that the provision to the public of free food was beyond the abilities of any government at that time. He claims that political leaders rejected proposals to provide famine relief because they felt that this move would turn the Irish into paupers and make them permanently dependent on the state for sustenance. Consequently, the British adhered to the belief that private enterprise should provide most of the food required to feed famine-stricken Ireland.7 LOCAL RELIEF DURING THE GREAT IRISH FAMINE 110 1 Charles Trevelyan, The Irish Crisis (London: Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1848), 64, 65. 2 Final Report of the Board of Public Works in Ireland, September 1847, British Parliamentary Papers—Famine (Shannon: Irish University Press, 1970), vol. 8, 379–85. Quoted in Christine Kinealy, This Great Calamity: The Irish...

Potato Glycoalkaloids: Chemistry, Analysis, Safety, and Plant Physiology

Potatoes, members of the Solanaceae plant family, serve as a major, inexpensive food source for both energy (starch) and good-quality protein, with worldwide production of about 350 million tons per year. U.S. per capita consumption of potatoes is about 61 kg/year. Potatoes also produce potentially toxic glycoalkaloids, both during growth and after harvest. Glycoalkaloids appear to be more toxic to man than to other animals. The toxicity may be due to anticholinesterase activity of the glycoalkaloids on the central nervous system and to disruptions of cell membranes affecting the digestive system and other organs. The possible contribution of glycoalkaloids to the multifactorial aspects of teratogenicity is inconclusive. Possible safe levels are controversial; guidelines limiting glycoalkaloid content of potato cultivars are currently being debated. This review presents an integrated, critical assessment of the multifaceted aspects of the role glycoalkaloids play in nutrition and food safety; chemistry and analysis; plant physiology, including biosynthesis, distribution, inheritance, host-plant resistance, and molecular biology; preharvest conditions such as soil composition and climate; and postharvest events such as effects of light, temperature, storage time, humidity, mechanical injury, sprouting inhibition, and processing. Further research needs are suggested for each of these categories in order to minimize pre- and postharvest glycoalkaloid synthesis. The overlapping aspects are discussed in terms of general concepts for a better understanding of the impact of glycoalkaloids in plants and in the human diet. Such an understanding can lead to the development of potato varieties with a low content of undesirable compounds and will further promote the utilization of potatoes as a premier food source for animals and humans.

Expression of cholera toxin B subunit oligomers in transgenic potato plants.

A gene encoding the cholera toxin B subunit protein (CTB), fused to an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention signal (SEKDEL) was inserted adjacent to the bi-directional mannopine synthase P2 promoter in a plant expression vector containing a bacterial luciferase AB fusion gene (luxF) linked to the P1 promoter. Potato leaf explants were transformed by Agrobacterium tumefaciens carrying the vector and kanamycin-resistant plants were regenerated. The CTB-SEKDEL fusion gene was identified in the genomic DNA of bioluminescent plants by polymerase chain reaction amplification. Immunoblot analysis indicated that plant-derived CTB protein was antigenically indistinguishable from bacterial CTB protein, and that oligomeric CTB molecules (M(r) approximately 50 kDa) were the dominant molecular species isolated from transgenic potato leaf and tuber tissues. Similar to bacterial CTB, plant-synthesized CTB dissociated into monomers (M(r) approximately 15 kDa) during heat or acid treatment. The maximum amount of CTB protein detected in auxin-induced transgenic potato leaf and tuber tissues was approximately 0.3% of total soluble plant protein. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay methods indicated that plant-synthesized CTB protein bound specifically to GM1-ganglioside, the natural membrane receptor of cholera toxin. In the presence of the SEKDEL signal, CTB protein accumulates in potato tissues and is assembled into an oligomeric form that retains native biochemical and immunological properties. The expression of oligomeric CTB protein with immunological and biochemical properties identical to native CTB protein in edible plants opens the way for preparation of inexpensive food plant-based oral vaccines for protection against cholera and other pathogens in endemic areas throughout the world.

Shelf life of weaning foods developed from locally available food stuffs.

Four weaning foods were formulated using locally available cereals and pulses such as wheat (Triticum aestivum), barley (Hordeum vulgare), green gram (Vigna radiata) and jaggery. Cereal, pulse and jaggery were used in the proportion of 70:30:25. Roasting and malting were two processing techniques used. The developed weaning foods were evaluated for their nutritional characteristics and shelf life. All the formulations had a nutrient composition within the range prescribed by the Indian Standard Institute (ISI) for processed weaning foods. Peroxide value and fat acidity of weaning foods increased with increase in storage period. Malting of weaning foods resulted in higher increase of peroxide value and fat acidity as compared to roasted ones during the period of storage. All the blends were found to be acceptable up to 60 days of storage. The results, indicated that weaning foods developed from locally available less inexpensive foods may be used as good supplements for infants.

Vision, values, and courage: leadership for quality management

Today, quality is the battleground on which global competition takes place, yet without effective leadership no quality program can succeed. This penetrating book exposes the problems that arise when leadership in fails to do its job, and offers powerful, inspirational examples of firms that have confronted this problem and prevailed through leadership that aims at producing quality results. By highlighting the practices of such noted leaders as Walt Disney and Michael Eisner at Walt Disney, Ray Kroc at McDonald's, Sam Walton at Wal-Mart, David Kearns at Xerox, and Robert Galvin at Motorola, the authors reveal how each of these legendary leaders possessed three crucial leadership characteristics - vision, strong values and beliefs, and the active courage to make their visions a reality. These characteristics, they show, make the difference between superior performance and business as usual. With eloquent case studies, the authors demonstrate that unusually successful leaders show the way for their employees by nurturing cultures that encourage and reward quality performance and by exhibiting personal characteristics that inspire excellence. A leader dedicated to a single vision, the authors show, inspires personal commitment to a common purpose. Walt Disney had a vision of a company that would never stop creating, innovating, and growing. Values and beliefs serve as the basis for direction and action in a business. Superior leaders, the authors argue, are expert in the promotion of values - such as Ray Kroc's obsession with high-quality, inexpensive food in a clean environment. The courage to make things happen is exhibited most dramatically by Sam Walton'sperseverance in mass-market retailing. The payoffs for these superior leaders included the loyalty and commitment of their employees, quality, and profits. The authors' approach to leadership for quality management - with its focus on vision, values, and courage - emphatically demonstrate

Effective food marketing: a tool for socioeconomic development in the Third World

Since the end of the second world war the Green Revolution has helped produce an abundance of inexpensive food. Yet in many parts of the world, including such industrialized and wealthy countries in the USA, malnutrition is getting worse. In 1988 at least 800 million people — 15% of the world's population of 5.3 billion — were on diets that fell short of essential nutrients. Evidently the technology of marketing, which includes all functions performed in getting food from producers to consumers, has been subjected to benign neglect. This paper attempts to quantify the extent and reason for this neglect, and explores some remedial actions for the 1990s and beyond.

Hazard Analyses of Foods Prepared by Inhabitants Near Lake Titicaca in the Peruvian Sierra

Hazard analyses of food preparation practices were conducted in two households in an Andean Indian Pueblo near Puno, Peru and in a house on the outskirts of this city. These analyses consisted of watching all steps of preparation, recording temperatures throughout all these steps, and collecting samples of food and testing them for common foodborne pathogens and indicator organisms. Only cereal-potato soup (a very popular and inexpensive food in the region), kidney stew, and parched cereal were prepared during the survey. The soups boiled during cooking and most of them were eaten during the first serving. Vegetative forms of pathogenic bacteria would have been killed during cooking, but heat-resistant spores would have survived. Leftovers in the pueblo homes, when there were any, remained without heat on the clay stoves on which they had been cooked until eaten or reheated. In the other household, cooked foods were moved from the stove to an earthen floor and kept there until reheating. Under this condition, cooling was more rapid than when left on stoves. The interval of time that cooked foods were between 49°C (120°F) and 21°C (70°F) during holding was less than 4 h, thereby limiting spore germination and bacterial multiplication. In the only household in which foods were reheated, they boiled. Critical control points for food preparation in homes are cooking, holding between cooking and serving, and reheating.