Native Research Articles

Disease and Expansion: A Review of Medical, Ecological and Social Consequences of the Columbian Exchange

The exploratory voyage of Christopher Columbus and his arrival in the Bahamas on October 12th, 1492 marked an innovative discovery of the New World. Since then, a series of interactions, including trade, flora, livestock, diseases, technology and ideas, have been extensively exchanged between Europe and the Americas. This massive exchange involved not only economic gains and political domination, but also profound medical, ecological and social impacts: it has transferred viruses and bacteria that carried lethal diseases from Europe to indigenous peoples who lacked immunity. Likewise, the Americas also transmitted fatal diseases through its conquistadors, which eventually resulted in numerous victims in Europe. This paper discusses several notable issues during the Columbian Exchange of diseases, including European medical settlements in the New World, the discovery of new remedies, and main diseases that spread to both the New World and the Old World. Based on the colonial context, this paper will explain the subsequent effects that ultimately changed the world. Overall, it is difficult to imagine how different the world would be without this exchange, in which diseases played an important role in contributing to European prosperity.

Akiga Sai from the perspective of Dutch Reformed Church missionaries:

Akiga Sai (1898-1959) is heralded as one of the few indigenous African anthropologists and historians of the early twentieth century. His work for the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa (DRCSA) as evangelist, teacher, and translator (1915-1945), however, is under-researched. Furthermore, despite the significance of Sai’s life and work, no biography of his life has been published. This article illustrates that it is possible to extract valuable biographical and contextual data regarding Sai from the records of the DRCSA Sudan Mission, demonstrating the collection’s value regarding early documentation of indigenous communities. By compiling a partial biographical profile of the Nigerian Tiv writer, politician, translator, and evangelist Akiga Sai as a case study, this article highlights the importance of the DRCSA’s archival collections, specifically the documentation relating to the Cape Synod’s Sub-Commission for Foreign Missions [Buitelandse Sending Subkommissie]. Part of the DRCSA’s heritage is its archive: the rich and varied sources, available in a wide variety of languages, contains valuable information about aspects of (Southern) African history unavailable elsewhere.

“They talk about it like it's an overdose crisis when in fact it's basically genocide”: The experiences of Indigenous peoples who use illicit drugs in Vancouver's Downtown Eastside neighbourhood

Indigenous Peoples who use illicit drugs (IPWUID) are disproportionately represented among toxic drug poisoning deaths in Canada. These drug-related harms are framed by the historical and ongoing trauma related to settler colonialism and are acutely visible in Vancouver, Canada's Downtown Eastside - a low-income neighbourhood that is an epicenter of the drug poisoning crisis and characterized by entrenched poverty, substance use, violence, and homelessness. This study was undertaken to examine the experiences and perspectives of IPWUID in the Downtown Eastside regarding the drug poisoning crisis and the responsiveness of harm reduction programs within the context of settler colonialism. Indigenous-led qualitative interviews were conducted with 16 IPWUID recruited by Indigenous peer researchers. Indigenous ways of knowing were embedded throughout the entire research design to ensure research was culturally congruent. Interview transcripts were analyzed thematically and interpreted by drawing on concepts of social violence and racial capitalism. Our analysis reviewed three key themes that centered the experiences of IPWUID in Vancouver's Downtown Eastside in relation to the drug poisoning crisis: (1) that the drug poisoning crisis is understood as a form of genocide toward Indigenous Peoples; (2) that the crisis is experienced within the context of pervasive distrust and adversarial relationships with police rooted in structurally racist experiences of place-based policing practices; and (3) that there is a desire for culturally-safe harm reduction care with Indigenous representation, cultural integration, and that addresses inequities and injustice stemming from colonialism and structural racism. Findings demonstrate how responses to the drug poisoning crisis among IPWUID need to respond to social and materials conditions perpetuated by colonialism and racial capitalism, while also centering IPWUID through the development and implementation of Indigenous-led and culturally safe harm reduction approaches.

Planning for autonomy and conservation: ‘Life Plans’ and communal reserves in the Amazonian borders of Peru

ABSTRACT State-promoted biodiversity conservation can either align with or diverge from Indigenous Peoples’ priorities, knowledge, and self-determined development paths. Drawing on fieldwork at the Amazon borders of Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, this paper examines Indigenous organizations’ efforts to uphold territorial rights and pursue planning with Indigenous values in landscapes earmarked for conservation. The key question centers on how ‘border configurations’ affect grassroots planning and conservation focusing on the experience of Peruvian Secoya (Siékopai) People. Using expert interviews and ethnographic methods, the paper finds that conservation agencies risk losing credibility without genuine efforts toward social equity and well-being, constrained by mandates that often neglect local needs. The success of Life Plans depends on solidarity networks that balance conservation with viable economic alternatives, equitable power dynamics, and access to services. Ultimately, the paper shows that Life Plans empower Indigenous organizations, offering meaningful options for political self-representation within Amazonian conservation.

Post-Extractivist Horizons in Latin America: Between Utopias and Struggles for Re-Existence Against Neo-Extractivism

The triumph of neoliberal globalisation has been presented as the end of history, with no viable alternatives available. In Latin America, however, the structural adjustment programmes imposed by international financial institutions and the increased role of transnational corporations were resisted by social and popular movements that eventually translated into progressive politics and policies. Nevertheless, despite anti-capitalist and pro-environment rhetoric, extraction of natural resources has continued to expand under progressive governments, with devastating effects on environmental justice and Indigenous peoples’ rights. Focusing on socio-territorial struggles for re-existence in Bolivia through the cases of peasant struggle in Tariquía and the establishment of the National Coordinator for the Defence of Indigenous Territories and Protected Areas (CONTIOCAP), we investigate how Indigenous and peasant organisations resist extractive projects and organise collective life in alternative ways. We show how social actors, especially women, defend, propose and imagine post-extractivist alternatives as a societal horizon – both utopian and possible – to the current socio-ecological crisis, in a context of disillusionment with the government’s rhetoric of vivir bien as a state-led ecological and Indigenous policy. We argue that by defending life, women try to heal the human and more-than-human relationality in the territories impacted by progressive neo-extractivism.

Evaluation of a longitudinal Indigenous health elective in family medicine

Background: In response to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada Calls to Action 22 to 24 around health, the Department of Family Medicine at the University of Calgary piloted a novel Indigenous Health Longitudinal Elective (IHLE) to give first year residents longitudinal experiences in Indigenous healthcare environments. The purpose of this evaluation was to capture the successful qualities and identify areas for improvements to ensure feasibility of the IHLE pilot program. Methods: Between November 2022 and April 2023, semi-structured interviews were completed with seven participants of the IHLE and included a mix of residents, preceptors, and clinic staff members. Qualitative thematic analysis was used to gain an in-depth understanding of the IHLE program experiences of all participants. Results: Benefits of the IHLE program include a deeper understanding of the values and priorities critical to working in healthcare with Indigenous peoples in Southern Alberta. Areas for improvement include clarity around IHLE program structure; clearly defining roles and responsibilities for preceptors; increased opportunities for reciprocity and relationality; and a deeper self-reflection process. Conclusion: Recommendations for future iterations of the IHLE include ensuring preceptors are trained and engaged, while providing residents more opportunities for relationality and peer debriefing. Results from this study may also help inform future Indigenous health programming in family medicine.

On the Ranchería with Keebet von Benda-Beckmann: legal pluralism, the Wiwa People, el Cercado, and socio-spatial relations in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta

In 2006, the Colombian Institute for Rural Development (INCODER) initiated construction of the El Cercado dam on the Ranchería River, neglecting proper consultation with Indigenous Peoples along the river who mobilized to protect their livelihoods, cultural practices, self-determination, and the sacred lands within the government-recognized “Black Line.” Recently, Law 2415 granted the Ranchería River status as a subject of rights, establishing a Commission of Guardians comprising government and local representatives, signaling a shift toward cooperative stewardship among the region’s diverse communities and stakeholders. This paper offers a novel reading focused on the Wiwa People, as existing literature primarily addresses the Wayúu People’s experiences. Furthermore, most studies frame the normative context surrounding the Ranchería through a “weak” pluralist perspective of the Colombian legal system, often neglecting analytical complexities beyond a state-centered approach. To counter these limitations, we utilize the conceptual framework of Keebet von Benda-Beckmann, whose insights on relational social theory, law’s spatiotemporal dimensions, and water rights enable a more complex yet accurate account of how actors in this context deal with the law and variously articulate it. We argue that von Benda-Beckmann’s approach helps to unravel the challenges posed by hyperregulation while clarifying how strategic mobilization functions within this environment. By adopting this framework alongside a “thick” understanding of the local context, we aim to provide a more sensitive analysis of the evolving legal landscape, shedding light on the struggles over natural resources in Colombia and potentially offering insights for similar conflicts elsewhere.

To heal, grow, and thrive: Engaging Indigenous paradigms and perspectives in developmental science.

A focus on positive child development among Indigenous children has largely been absent from developmental science. In this special section of Child Development, we sought to address continuing inequity in representation and valuing Indigenous knowledge and voices by soliciting articles that identified cultural and strengths-based factors Indigenous children, youth, and families cultivate and leverage to promote positive development. In this introduction to the special section, we provide an overview of the four empirical articles included, with attention to the ways these articles advance Indigenous paradigms and methodologies by focusing on the unique histories and strengths of four distinct Indigenous communities. We end with a discussion of how to promote continued growth and inclusiveness in developmental science with Indigenous communities.

Broken by her Country of Broken Things: Memory, Resistance, and the Politics of Time in NoViolet Bulawayo’s Glory (2022)

This article presents a reading of NoViolet Bulawayo’s novel Glory (2022) in the light of indigenous temporality and structural and administrative violence in the transition from pre-colonial to colonial, and then to postcolonial times in an imaginary African land. The study argues that structures of neocolonial violence and active erasure create a pseudo-temporality in the people of the ex postcolonies. It seeks to explore the idea of time in the postcolony, the distortion of communal past by the colonisers, the imposition of an invented past, present and future on the subjects, and the multitude’s resistance to and rejection of this imposed time in an African society. The novel depicts the patterns of violence in the postcolony. The indigenous population in the novel seeks to build for them a just future. Historical consciousness of suffering and pain of the ancestors is the starting point of liberating self. Remembering and memorialising the ancestors who suffered is the first step towards it. The study gives us a key to understanding parallel democracy that decolonised nations should aim at, keeping in view the damage caused by the invader’s view of progress (Western concept of development with neocolonialism) and democracy (a colonial byproduct). memorialising the ancestors who suffered is the first step towards it. The study gives us a key to understanding parallel democracy that decolonised nations should aim at, keeping in view the damage caused by the invader’s view of progress (Western concept of development with neocolonialism) and democracy (a colonial byproduct).

Colonialism and imperialism in Austrian history curricula and textbooks (1945–2023)

The article considers the depiction of colonialism and imperialism in Austrian textbooks (n = 61) and curricula issued since the commencement of the Second Republic in 1945. The analysis indicates that textbooks made use of the freedom afforded them by state stipulations, which, while evidently taking a distinctly eurocentric point of view, give textbook authors scope for taking decisions on the inclusion or exclusion of particular topics. The textbooks studied covered various aspects of this area of history that curricula did not list expressly, such as the impact of European colonial aggression on Indigenous populations. Simultaneously, the analysis showed a long absence from textbooks of colonialism’s implications throughout history to the present day, and demonstrated that textbooks reproduced racist ideas well into the 2000s, with corresponding effects on perceptions of history among Austrian population today.

Sleep quality and hypertension in an indigenous African population: a cross-sectional investigation from the COMBAT-CVDs study.

Hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular events worldwide, and little is known about its association with sleep quality (SQ) among Africans. We evaluated the association of SQ with hypertension among adults in Ibadan, Nigeria. In Ibadan and its suburbs, we identified 3635 participants in the door-to-door Community-based Investigation of the Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Diseases (COMBAT-CVDs) study. SQ was self-reported, and SQ scores were classified by the tertile distribution in this sample as good(<9), moderate(10-18), and poor(≥19), and hypertension was defined as one of the following conditions: systolic blood pressure ≥140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg or prior diagnosis by a certified health professional or current use of blood pressure-lowering drugs. Using good SQ as a reference, logistic regression models were used to estimate the multivariable-adjusted odds ratio and 95% confidence interval (CI) for odds of hypertension by tertiles of SQscores in a two-sided test at p < 0.05. In all, 1182 (32.5%) had poor SQ, 903 (24.8%) had hypertension, and the mean(±SD) age was 35.3 ± 15.2 years in this sample. The multivariable-adjusted odds of hypertension by tertiles of SQ scores (using good SQ as reference) were OR: 1.13 (95% CI: 0.92, 1.38) for moderate SQ, and OR: 1.29 (95% CI: 1.05, 1.59) for poor SQ; P for trend = 0.06 after adjusting for relevant covariates. Poor SQ is associated with higher odds of hypertension in this sample. The imperative of culturally sensitive interventions to improve SQ would be promising in managing poor sleep-associated hypertension burdenin this population.

Colonial management drives ecological change following the exclusion of Indigenous stewardship in a Stoney Iyethka montane grassland, Canadian Rocky Mountains

Abstract For millennia, Indigenous Peoples and their ecological stewardship have kept culturally important landscapes open, diverse and productive. Under colonization which suppresses stewardship activities, landscape vegetation patterns shift and areas previously stewarded by Indigenous Peoples are now undergoing successional change. As a case study, we document ecological change on the homelands of the Stoney Iyethka Nations in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, where landscapes have changed dramatically over the past century of colonial management. On the Stoney Iyethka traditional montane Egnuck Wida grasslands, we analysed vegetation change on both the landscape and plot level. Using oblique photographs taken in 1924 paired with 2021 satellite imagery, we compared past and present landscape vegetation cover and assessed drivers of succession. We also examined differences in vegetation class cover and plant community structure between surveys conducted in 1981, 1995 and 2020. Nearly half (47%) of the landscape surveyed showed seral progression in vegetation class, which was not explained by topography, geology or climate warming. Grassland area decreased four‐fold between 1924 and 2021. Grassland retention was strongly related to management zoning, with greater losses in the crown‐managed ecological reserve than on lands that remain under Stoney Iyethka stewardship. Vegetation plots surveyed reveal changes to plant community composition and shifts in dominant vegetation class. In plots previously composed primarily of forbs and graminoids, shrubs have become the dominant groundcover. Declines in historic vegetation include a loss of culturally important food, medicine and ceremonial plants to the Stoney Iyethka Nations. The most likely explanation for these results is the displacement of Indigenous Peoples and their stewardship from the landscape. We demonstrate that the past century of colonial environmental management has altered ecological processes maintained on this landscape for millennia by Indigenous Peoples. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Radiocarbon ageing of Indigenous culturally‐significant trees for bushfire management on Minjerribah (North Stradbroke Island), southeast Queensland

SummaryPartnerships between Indigenous People and governments for joint management of ancestral lands, designated as protected conservation areas for biodiversity and cultural heritage, provide an opportunity to leverage accumulated traditional land management knowledge with emerging science. In Australia, veteran or large old trees in natural landscapes are of significant ecological importance, and among the Indigenous communities, they are living monuments to historical cultural practices, but their survival, endurance and long lives are rarely acknowledged to afford them protection. In sub‐tropical Australia, the lack of consistent annual growth rings in stem wood makes it difficult to estimate the age of large trees using methods such as the periodic diameter increment. Ngugi et al., 2020 published radiocarbon (14C) dates using wood core (‘pith‐wood’) samples from 12 Indigenous culturally‐significant trees covering five species on Minjerribah (North Stradbroke Island). Due to the imprecise calendar age results of the single samples used in the original study (Ngugi et al., 2020), subsequent radiocarbon dating of an additional three wood core samples from each tree was undertaken to age the trees more precisely. The revised tree ages ranged from 63 to 531 years and suggest an important role of past Indigenous land management practices into protecting Bugari (Cypress Pine, Callitris columellaris F. Muell.) from deadly crown scorching fires. These results underscore the importance of incorporating Indigenous practices in current fire management strategies and plans. Estimating tree ages based on the periodic diameter increment method overestimated the age relative to that derived from radiocarbon dating. New bias correction factors were developed for adjusting the recorded periodic tree diameter increments.

Strong association between high burden of soil-transmitted helminthiasis and household transmission among Malaysian Negritos, urging anthelmintic treatment beyond children

The Orang Asli (OA), Malaysia’s indigenous minority, continue to experience ongoing soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections despite efforts including the Resettlement Programme (RPS). This study explores STH epidemiology and associated risks of moderate-to-heavy infections among 259 indigenous Negritos across four states in Peninsular Malaysia. Stool samples, anthropometrics, haemoglobin levels (finger-prick) and sociodemographic and environmental-sanitation factors via pretested questionnaires were collected. Parasitological examinations (direct faecal smear, formol-ether concentration, and Kato-Katz techniques) were thoroughly performed. The study revealed a 63.3% overall STH prevalence, with Trichuris trichiura (57.9%) being the most common, followed by Ascaris lumbricoides (35.5%) and hookworm (8.9%). Moderate-to-heavy infections were observed in 39.3% for T. trichiura and 48.9% for A. lumbricoides, with mixed infections of these two species being the most prevalent (50.6%). The risk for moderate-to-heavy infection increased significantly if other household members were infected (P < 0.001). Adults and adolescents also showed high infection rates, with no significant differences with children’s groups. These findings emphasize the need for anthelmintic treatment across all age groups and strategize local policies targeting older groups of the OA community to control ongoing transmission and reduce the STH burden and protect the future well-being of OA children, who deserve a healthier future.

Indigenous evaluation

Background: Indigenous evaluation incorporates Indigenous ways of knowing and draws upon cultural paradigms (Indigenous Evaluation Toolkit, 2022). Indigenous evaluation literature is limited in both quantity and quality outcomes resulting in a lack of clarity. This scoping review was conducted to identify guiding principles, Indigenous evaluation methodologies, and explore key concepts and gaps within the literature. Methods: This scoping review was guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist and Arskey and O’Malley’s Scoping Review Framework. It included peer-reviewed articles and grey literature. Articles were identified through electronic database searching and reference lists using keywords. This review only included data written in English, available in full text, included keywords and identified the author and title of the publication. Articles that were not specific to Indigenous peoples or outlined Indigenous methodologies that were not related to evaluation were excluded. Results: Out of 348 articles, 94 met the inclusion criteria for this review. The literature revealed 13 guiding principles (collaboration, respect, relationships, self-determination, flexibility, trust, truth, reciprocity, power, time, sovereignty, responsibility/accountability, and relevance) and 15 Indigenous evaluation methodologies (culturally responsive, community-based, participatory, storytelling, empowerment, decolonizing, strength-based, self-reflection/location, mixed methods, talking circles, tribal critical theory, two-eyed seeing, the 4 R’s, trauma-informed approach, and ethical space). Conclusion: Key findings in this review demonstrate the need for further development of a culturally responsive Indigenous evaluation approach and for future research to outline how to put Indigenous evaluation methodologies and guiding principles into practice. Filling this gap will make a significant contribution to the field of evaluation research for Indigenous peoples, communities, and evaluators.

A decolonial approach to Brazilian environmental policy since 1972

The aim of this article is to discuss the neoliberal project as a colonial determinant of the environmental policy in Brazil since 1972. The 1972 Stockholm Conference is used as a milestone for analysis. The results show that, since the military regime in the 1970s and through successive elected governments, whether right- or left-wing, federal policies have consistently aimed to boost the country’s economic growth. Even the few socio-environmental advances identified during the first administrations of the Labour Party (2003–2010) resulted from processes focused on the ‘deterritorialisation’ of Indigenous peoples and traditional communities. The ultra-liberal project adopted by the Bolsonaro administration (2019–2022) accelerated these processes and promoted an aggressive denialist, anti-environmental and anti-Indigenous agenda. Given the current political scenario (Lula administration 2023–2026), this study makes the following main contributions: it offers a new orientation for the environmental and Indigenous agendas developed by the progressive sector in Brazil and advocates for a science orientated towards contributing to a new environmental and Indigenous agenda in the country.

“Cats in congress or penguins in parliament”? Towards the just representation of more-than-humans in Antarctic environmental governance

ABSTRACT Representation is a core component of Rights of Nature (RoN). While giving a human voice to more-than-humans might be seen as anthropocentric, RoN is one of the best tools available in current legal frameworks and institutions to safeguard the interests of more-than-humans. However, challenges arise when looking at the Antarctic. In particular, the absence of a permanent population, a State, and an Indigenous people makes the designation of an Antarctic representative a delicate matter. More-than-humans are the only permanent residents of the Antarctic while being paradoxically excluded from Antarctic decision-making processes and institutions. This article explores the issue of ‘just representation’ of more-than-humans within the Antarctic Treaty System, based on theories of multispecies justice focusing on recognition and participation. It develops the political, legal, and theoretical frameworks for a just environmental governance in the Antarctic, looking at RoN to support some aspects of the ‘just representation’ of more-than-humans in the Antarctic.

Analysis of Pros and Cons of New Province Expansion in Papua

This study aims to examine the analysis of mass media coverage sentiment about the division of a new province in Papua. Using qualitative analysis with Q-DAS software, namely Nvivo 12Plus, this research collects data from online news and previous research related to the expansion of the Papua Province. The results show that there are pro and contra sentiments, where activists and citizens are more critical of it and reject it, while the government is more supportive of it. This analysis also uncovers various narratives in the media that highlight the potential benefits of regional expansion, such as development, better public services, and preserving local culture. However, there are also concerns about financial and economic inefficiencies and a lack of representation of indigenous people's voices. Relations between the different actors are complex, with decentralization principles governing interactions between the central government and the newly created local governments. This research emphasizes the need for a thorough evaluation, considering social, economic, political, and cultural impacts, and involving all relevant stakeholders in the decision-making process.

Influences on improved confidence among allied health students in working with Australian Indigenous people during a rural placement: a pre-post survey study

BackgroundTogether with addressing social determinants of health, culturally safe healthcare provision is essential for closing the health outcomes gap experienced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (Indigenous) Australians. Rural placements potentially provide students of the health professions with opportunities to enhance their knowledge and skills regarding cultural safety. We used rural placements data systematically collected from allied health students, including commencement- and end-of-placement questionnaire responses, to investigate the determinants of confidence in working with Indigenous people.MethodsThe study comprised data from all students who provided survey data at both commencement and end of their first placement directly supervised by the administering University Department of Rural Health during the period 2019–2022. Five-point ordered responses to the question ‘How confident do you feel about working with Aboriginal people?’ were used to assess student and placement-related determinants of confidence (Confident/Very confident versus other) at baseline and increased confidence (≥ 1 point) during the placement using crude and adjusted multivariable robust Poisson regression.ResultsParticipating students (N = 489) were from diverse allied health disciplines (including pharmacy n = 94, 19.2%; chiropractic n= 66, 13.5%; physiotherapy n= 65, 13.3%; social work n = 59, 12.1%; and occupational therapy 58, 11.9%). Confidence in dealing with Aboriginal people was lower at commencement among females compared with males (adjusted relative risk [aRR] 0.65; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.53–0.80), and higher among students of Australian rural origin compared with others (aRR 1.49; CI 1.22–1.83) and those who reported previous experience working with Indigenous people compared with those reporting none (aRR 1.40; CI 1.14–1.72). Placement attributes associated with increased confidence working with Indigenous people between placement commencement and end were interaction with Indigenous people within the placement (aRR 2.32; CI 1.24–4.34), placement model reflecting more structured academic supervision (aRR 1.18; CI 1.02–1.37), and placement length (aRR per additional day 1.002; CI 1.001–1.004). These associations were robust to modelling that accounted for a ceiling effect on increased confidence.ConclusionsWhile influenced by students’ demographic attributes and prior experiences, confidence of allied health students in working with Indigenous people is enhanced during rural placements, particularly through direct contact with Indigenous people.

Community Forest Management and the Resilience of Karen Indigenous Knowledge in Northern Thailand.

This study investigates the resilience of indigenous knowledge in five Karen villages, located in Thailand's Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, and Lampang provinces, that have been recognized for best practices in community forest management (CFM). The CFM model was initiated by local communities to promote forest conservation and community engagement. Data on CFM practices, land-use rights, social networks, and indigenous knowledge were collected through 17 in-depth interviews and 5 focus group meetings. The findings include how these Karen communities have adopted payment for environmental services (PES) to fund conservation projects and social welfare. More specifically, PES generates social capital by facilitating coordination with stakeholders from the private sector, academia, and government. These social networks promote markets for local products and advocate for indigenous land-use rights. The PES model also serves as a tool whereby Indigenous Peoples can shape their identities as innovative forest guardians and legitimize their residence within the forest. Additionally, the study reports on how Karen people have diversified their livelihoods to include hosting academic tourism, handicrafts, and livestock, reducing their dependence on forest resources.