Urban India Research Articles

Bargaining Freedoms: How Women in Urban India Experience a Sense of Agency

Bargaining Freedoms: How Women in Urban India Experience a Sense of Agency

‘Mostly women's issues’ – Gender differences in community responses to a large-scale NGO programme to prevent violence against women in urban India

Despite striking gender differences in men's and women's engagement in past prevention programmes to stop violence against women (VAW), few empirical studies have determined why such gender differences arise. We did a grounded theory study of a large-scale NGO programme in informal settlements in Mumbai, India, aiming to analyse how gender affects participation in community action to address VAW. We did 27 focus group discussions and 31 semi-structured interviews with 77 women and 36 men, as well as with 9 NGO staff. We supplemented qualitative data with quantitative monitoring data on referrals to NGO counselling centres. We found that male participants in the NGO programme not only reported violence to the NGO at lower rates but took less intensive action to support survivors. When they did engage, they more often defended perpetrators or asked survivors to accommodate them than female participants. These differences could be explained by a greater (1) affective response to VAW (2) perceived stake in addressing VAW (3) sense of empowerment from taking action, and (4) perceived NGO support for self among women compared to men. Differences were evident even between male and female participants who had taken part in NGO activities for years. We theorise that these differences ultimately stem from men and women's structurally different position in a gender unequal society. Our findings identify key motivational barriers to address to improve the effectiveness of programmes to prevent VAW. Given the greater barriers to men's community action compared to women's community action, it may be useful to recognize the value of prevention programmes with differing levels of male engagement, including women-only programmes and programmes in which male community participants play a secondary role and are not expected to be as active as female participants.

How to Take Modern Healthcare Facilities to Rural India

COVID times has proved that modern healthcare facilities available in urban India can be carried to rural India. The way COVID has been managed, controlled and citizens have been vaccinated is a testimony to the fact that in spite of splurging population, we have been able to reach out to the healthcare needs of majority. Objective of this commentary is to study the present state of rural health, compare it with urban areas and check the feasibility of adoption of NinC’s Indian model of Innovation for improving the same. This commentary is based on Literature survey. Results have concluded that coverage of primary healthcare services, such as antenatal care, institutional deliveries and insurance coverage is very low among the rural poor population. Effective adoption of Ninc model would change the rural healthcare scenario.

Optimization of Embodied Energy and Construction Cost of Low-Income Housing in Urban India

India is the most populous country in the world, having a population of 1.42 billion in 2022. It is urbanizing rapidly, with the present urbanization level at about 35%, which is expected to reach about 40% by 2030. There was an estimated demand of 11.22 million homes in urban India in 2017, of which 95% was in the affordable housing sector. This demand is expected to increase with the current urbanization trends. The Indian government is promoting the construction of millions of affordable houses under its ambitious Prime Minister’s Housing Program. These houses are planned, designed, and constructed using local materials and techniques, considering local climatic, geological, hazard, and socio-economic conditions. We examined the 30 most commonly applied housing typologies to determine which typologies and materials have minimum embodied energy and construction costs. The results indicate that load-bearing housing construction of up to three stories, with a plinth–carpet area ratio of 1.31, constructed with any of the blocks-based masonry techniques, has the lowest embodied energy and construction cost, and houses with a plinth–carpet area ratio of 1.51 have the highest. Further, houses constructed with Hollow CC block masonry have the lowest embodied energy, and HF Fly Ash block-based masonry has the lowest construction cost.

Critical Success Barriers (CSB) to Rental Housing Policy Implementation in Urban India

Barriers to rental housing (RH) pose significant challenges to urban development in India. This study examines critical success barriers (CSBs) to implementing RH policies, offering novel insights into this underexplored area. Despite rising demand for RH, significant obstacles hinder effective policy execution. Through expert surveys with 36 respondents and RIDIT analysis, the research identifies and prioritizes 16 CSBs, categorized into Regulatory and Institutional, Economic and Market, and Infrastructure and Development groups. Key findings reveal that the most critical barriers are inflexible rental agreements, negative social attitudes, and the absence of government incentives. These interdependent barriers impact the feasibility, attractiveness, and sustainability of RH projects. Inflexible agreements limit participation, negative social attitudes hinder inclusive development, and lack of incentives reduces private investment. The study recommends revising rental agreements, providing substantial incentives to private investors, and promoting high-density development through modified zoning regulations. Emphasizing multi-level governance, stakeholder engagement, and regular policy evaluations is crucial for effective implementation. Addressing these barriers can enhance the RH sector's sustainability and scalability. This research contributes to the existing literature by providing a quantitative framework for identifying and prioritizing CSBs in the RH, offering valuable insights for policymakers, developers, and stakeholders in urban housing.

Extracting regional and temporal features to improve machine learning for hourly air pollutants in urban India

India is suffering from severe particulate matter (PM, including PM2.5 and PM10) pollution, while limited ground observations are insufficient to support a comprehensive understanding of its health risks. Machine learning (ML) has the potential to improve the estimation of PM distribution and exposure efficiently. Regional transport as well as accumulation and dispersion processes of PM and its components, which have significant impacts on PM concentrations, are crucial when building ML models, especially for sparsely observed regions like India. Here, geographic and temporal-rolling weighting methods were used to separately extract regional and temporal features for improving the performance of the ML model. The incorporation of temporal and regional features into the ML model significantly improved ML model performance, with root mean square error (RMSE) reduced by 21 % and 19% for PM2.5 and PM10 estimation, as well as an improvement in model underestimation for the heavy pollution scenarios. The spatial-temporal model shows out-of-sample test CV coefficients of determination (R2) of 0.87 and 0.88 for hourly PM2.5 and PM10. The ML model predicts an annual nationwide concentration of 68.3 μg/m3 for PM2.5 with a north (high, especially in Indo-Gangetic Plain) to south (low) distribution, which is consistent with high satellite aerosol optical depth (AOD) values. Boundary layer height is identified as the main meteorological factor influencing PM2.5 concentrations in winter. Characterizing the regional transport and cumulative dispersion processes of pollutants by extracting features can help in machine learning training, and this method can be further improved and applied to other studies.

Understanding Labor Market Dynamics in Urban India Amidst the Pandemic: A Study Employing Supervised Learning Methods

Understanding Labor Market Dynamics in Urban India Amidst the Pandemic: A Study Employing Supervised Learning Methods

Gender Wage Differentials Among Highly Educated in Urban India

This study aims to answer two questions. First, whether highly educated women face a wage penalty compared to their men counterparts in urban India? Second, if there exists a gender wage penalty, then what has happened to its size over time? We use the unit level employment–unemployment data of the National Sample Survey (NSS) for two rounds: 2004–05 and 2011–12 and employ the Neuman and Oaxaca (2004) method to estimate the average wage gap accounting for selection bias. We find that the highly educated men in urban India earn about 30% more than their women counterparts, and there is a marginal decline in the gender wage gap between 2004–05 and 2011–12. The gender wage gap scenario is worse in the ‘post-graduate and above’ sample than in the ‘graduate’ sample. In the ‘graduate’ sample, the wage gap declined between 2004–05 and 2011–12, whereas the gap increased in the ‘post-graduate and above’ sample. Though the gender wage gap among the highly educated as a whole has declined in urban India, the magnitude of the gap is still sizable.

Perceived obstacles to implementing healthy eating habits amongst pre-adolescent Indian children – a parental perspective

ABSTRACT This study explored the mothers’ (N = 510) perceived impact of socialization agents, social media, relatives and parental eating habits on teaching healthy eating habits among pre-adolescents in urban India. Linear regression was applied to analyse the direct relationships, and Process Macros Models 1 and 4 were used to analyse the mediating and moderating relationships on SPSS (26.0) software. Findings suggest a significant association of the predictor variables with the healthy eating habits of the children, with a negative association of the mediator (parental control) and moderator (parental role model), implying that with an increase in the predictor variables, there is a decrease in the healthy eating habits of the pre-adolescents. The study’s originality lies in involving the children’s immediate family as the unit of analysis, which can further act as the base for designing interventions or measuring outcomes in future studies.

Alcohol consumption response to pandemic induced income shocks in India

The study assesses the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on household consumption of alcohol in India, considering both income shocks and supply-side factors. based on a nationally representative household survey conducted by CMIE. Using a 2SLS panel regression model and employing an approach akin to difference-in-differences technique, our study finds that the pandemic induced lockdowns resulted in a sharp increase in the share of alcohol in total expenditure across rural and urban India, and for all income levels. Alcohol consumption varies by education level, by caste, religion, and severity of income shocks. The increased alcohol consumption during the pandemic, and more so among the households that faced a severe income shock, despite the supply restrictions, suggest the stronger impact of stress-response-dampening hypothesis and self-medication hypothesis compared to the income effect. Despite state-imposed supply restrictions, including temporary alcohol shop closures and subsequent reopening with higher taxes, the study raises concerns about a disproportionate rise in alcohol consumption among the most economically impacted. This underscores the need for balanced policy responses, considering both economic stressors and public health imperatives, and emphasizes targeted interventions to mitigate the consequences of increased alcohol consumption during crises.

Urban food (In)security and the role of migrant informal food waste recyclers in Delhi

Urban food systems in developing countries like India are rife with inequalities that preclude food security for all. In this context, the paper examines the role played by informal workers in the ‘circular economy’ for food in improving the accessibility of food and urban food security in Delhi, India. Evidence from an informal street market close to one of the country's largest urban wholesale markets of food grains, pulses and spices in Delhi reveals rare details of how urban food waste plays a significant role in the livelihood strategies of the city's poor migrants while also contributing to the urban food security of the low-income households. Although there is a growing recognition that the street food sector plays an important role in urban food security, the vital role played by waste collectors, home-based workers and street vendors in restoring discarded food grain, pulses and spices, and bringing them back into the urban food system has been largely invisible. This invisibility extends to the gendered segregation of work in food waste recycling, where our study found that predominantly women undertake labour-intensive and lower paid tasks at the bottom of the hierarchy. The paper provides an overview of the nature of informal livelihood, the contribution of informal workers and challenges and opportunities in the urban circular economy for food. However, their contributions are often overshadowed by health and safety concerns about the reuse of discarded food. Further, an analysis of the current policy landscape in urban India also indicates that informal workers are marginalised in the circular economy for food. While the state owes these informal workers support and protection for their contribution to the ‘Circular economy’ for food and urban food security, any effort to sustain these practices would need to incorporate adequate health and safety procedures.

Emerging Epidemic: Non-Smoker Lung Cancer in India\'s Urban Centres

Abstract: Recent research has revealed a concerning trend in the incidence of lung cancer among non-smokers in India, particularly within urban centers. Contrary to the traditional association of lung cancer with smoking, a significant proportion of cases in India are now emerging in individuals with no history of tobacco use. This phenomenon is primarily attributed to severe air pollution, which has become a critical public health issue in many Indian cities. Rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to increased exposure to airborne pollutants, including fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and other carcinogens, which are now recognized as significant risk factors for lung cancer. Genetic predispositions further exacerbate this risk, with studies indicating that certain populations are more susceptible to developing lung cancer due to genetic mutations influenced by environmental exposures. These mutations and biomarkers, such as EGFR and ALK gene rearrangements, have been increasingly identified in Indian non-smoker lung cancer patients, providing critical insights into the disease's etiology and potential targeted therapies. India currently ranks fourth globally in lung cancer prevalence, with urban areas experiencing the highest growth rates. Projections suggest that the incidence of lung cancer will continue to rise, potentially reaching alarming levels by 2025. This emerging epidemic highlights the urgent need for comprehensive public health strategies to address air pollution and its associated health risks. Efforts must be directed towards reducing pollution levels through stringent regulatory measures, promoting cleaner technologies, and enhancing public awareness about the health impacts of air pollution. Additionally, implementing widespread screening programs and advancing research on genetic and environmental interactions can aid in early detection and personalized treatment approaches for affected individuals. In conclusion, the rising incidence of lung cancer among non-smokers in urban India signifies a shifting landscape in the disease's epidemiology. Addressing this public health challenge requires an integrated approach that combines environmental, genetic, and healthcare interventions to mitigate the growing burden of lung cancer in non-smoking populations.

Categorization of the Inevitable Causes of Blood and Components Wastage Detected in South Indian Urban Blood Centre

Background: Since there is no artificial substitute for human blood, it plays a vital role in the patient management in this era of modern medicine. Therefore the donated blood from a healthy donor is precious and must not be wasted without proper utilization. Blood wastage is a universal phenomenon which needs a careful approach with strict guidelines. The study aims at categorizing the various inevitable causes of wastage with an attempt to determine ways of preventing the loss due to non-utilization. Materials and Methods: A retrospective – cross sectional study was conducted in a newly started Stand-alone Blood Centre in South Indian Urban city between June, 2022 and June 2024.All the components including Whole Blood (WB), Packed Red Blood Cell Concentrate (PRBC), Platelet concentrate (PC) and Fresh Frozen Plasma (FFP) were included in the study. The reasons for blood and component wastage was noted down from the various Registers of the Blood Centre and all the data was analyzed using Microsoft Excel Spread Sheet. Results: A total of 2456 units of blood were collected. 5284 components were prepared from these which includes 42 units of Whole Blood, 2397 Packed Red Blood cells(PRBC), 2393 Fresh frozen Plasma(FFP), 452 Platelet Concentrate(PC).Overall discard rate was found to be 11.90%. PC discard rate was highest (49.34%) followed by WBU (19.04%), PRBC (13.01%) AND FFP (3.59%). The commonest cause for the discarding was expiry of the shelf life of blood bags (74.72%) followed by damaged bags (9.69%) and TTI’s (6.76%). Conclusion: Blood and its components wastage is an inevitable reality which needs to be approached as upmost priority. Zero wastage of blood and components may be targeted by recommendations like appropriate training of the blood bank staff, keeping negative group donors on reserve, strictly following FIFO policy while dispensing blood, whole blood unit collection may be minimized, encouraging Single Donor Platelets (SDP) by apheresis instead of Random Donor Platelets (RDP) preparation, Blood Utilization Committee to be made mandatory and permission for reciprocal sharing of blood components among blood banks.

Understanding period product use among young women in rural and urban India from a geospatial perspective

Ensuring proper menstrual hygiene management remains a significant challenge for young women in India. The term "exclusive use of hygienic period products during menstruation" refers to relying solely on period products like sanitary pads, tampons, or menstrual cups. Poor menstrual hygiene practices not only increase the risk of reproductive tract infections but also lead to various negative health outcomes, including discomfort and potential complications. This study explores factors associated with the exclusive use of period products during menstruation aged 15–24, investigates geographic disparities, examines rural–urban gaps, and assesses inequality in India. Utilizing data from the fifth National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), responses from 2,41,180 women aged 15 to 24 were analysed using logistic regression and multivariate decomposition analyses to explore socioeconomic predictors. Moran's I statistics also assessed spatial dependency, while Lorenz curves and Gini coefficients measured inequality. Quintile and LISA maps visualized regional disparities. The study found that 76.15% of women in India reported exclusive use of hygienic period products during menstruation. Rural areas reported a lower percentage of exclusive use of hygienic period products (72.32%) during menstruation compared to urban areas (89.37%). Key factors associated with the exclusive use of hygienic period products among 15–24-year-old women in India include age, education, place of residence, wealth, access to media, and healthcare discussions. Geographically, central districts exhibited the lowest coverage (< 65%), while the Southern region reported the highest (> 85). The GINI coefficient of 0.39 highlighted moderate inequality in distribution. Decomposition analysis revealed that household wealth contributed 49.25% to rural–urban differences, followed by education (13.41%), media access (7.97%), and region (4.97%). This study highlights significant regional disparities and low utilization of hygienic period products among young women in India, particularly in central districts. Policymakers should prioritize interventions targeting these regions, addressing socio-economic disparities. Strategies to promote education, improve media access, and enhance household wealth can facilitate menstrual hygiene adoption. Initiatives to reduce sanitary napkin costs and increase accessibility, particularly in rural areas, are crucial to mitigating geographical disparities nationwide.

Employer–Domestic Worker Dynamic in Kolkata: From Maternalism to Transactionalism

Domestic workers used to be treated virtually as members of the family in South Asian contexts, with much evidence of various forms of exploitation. Presently, the increasing prevalence of formal patron–client dynamics among part-time domestic labourers in urban India takes specific hybrid forms that require further research. The article examines to what extent efforts to establish purely commercial arrangements in the domestic service sector may avoid traditional forms of exploitation. Or do more formal professional relationships still tend to benefit employers more, allowing them to assign additional tasks without offering corresponding extra benefits? The findings identify that establishing and maintaining purely professional relationships remains challenging in India due to deep-rooted ethical and cultural considerations and adaptability issues. Employers often unwittingly perpetuate traditional personalised domestic work settings. The article shows how both sides in this complex relationship struggle to identify and practice new modalities of fair interaction.

Protocol of the Nutritional, Psychosocial, and Environmental Determinants of Neurodevelopment and Child Mental Health (COINCIDE) study

Background Over 250 million children are developing sub-optimally due to their exposure to early life adversities. While previous studies have examined the independent effects of nutritional status, psychosocial adversities, and environmental pollutants on children’s outcomes, little is known about their interaction and cumulative effects. Objectives This study aims to investigate the independent, interaction, and cumulative effects of nutritional, psychosocial, and environmental factors on children’s cognitive development and mental health in urban and rural India. It also seeks to explain pathways leading to inequities in child development outcomes at the individual, household, and neighbourhood levels. Methods A mixed-methods prospective cohort study will be conducted on 1600 caregiver-child dyads (child age 3–9 years) in urban and rural India. Nutritional status, psychosocial adversities, environmental pollutants, and child mental health outcomes will be assessed using parent-report questionnaires. Performance-based measures will be used to assess cognitive outcomes. Venous blood and urine samples will be used to measure nutritional and pesticide biomarkers in 500 children. Indoor air pollution will be monitored in 200 households twice, during two seasons. Multilevel regression, weighted quantile sum regression, and Bayesian kernel machine regression will assess the individual and combined effects of exposures on child outcomes. Thematic analysis of in-depth interviews and focus group discussions will explore pathways to early childhood development inequities. Discussion The data will be used to formulate a Theory of Change (ToC) to explain the biological, psychosocial, and environmental origins of children’s cognitive and mental health outcomes across the first decade of life in diverse Indian settings, which will then inform context-specific intervention targets for promoting children’s outcomes beyond the first 1000 days, potentially generalizable to similar under-resourced global settings. The COINCIDE research infrastructure will comprise a valuable global health resource, including prospective cohort data, validated study tools, and stored biological and environmental samples for future studies.

Effectiveness of natural herbs on sewage and treated municipal wastewater: A comparative study

Improperly handled sewage is the main cause of water pollution. Nearly 62% of wastewater in urban India remains untreated or partially treated, which further gets disposed of in the natural water bodies. The usual treatment methods include the activated sludge process, oxidation ponds, aerated lagoons, and trickling filters. These methods need spacious areas, a lot of energy and time, which drives up the cost of the treatment. The expense of the treatment process can be decreased by using natural coagulants. The indigenous medical system uses plants, which are abundant in secondary metabolites, to treat a variety of illnesses. The purpose of this study was to comprehend how these indigenous plants can be utilized for treating sewage water, as a low-cost accessible method that can be used by citizens to get access to clean drinking water. Material &amp;amp; Methods: A quick and low-cost method was created to investigate the efficacy of Moringa oleifera (Moringa), Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi), and Azadirachta indica (Neem) in the treatment of sewage water. This herb treated water was then compared to municipal treated water from the Ghatkopar Wastewater treatment facility, managed by the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM), Mumbai, India. All the herb-based components were bought from regional markets, and water samples from a lagoon found in the nearby Ghatkopar lagoon in Mumbai. Results: When compared to the lagoon-treated water, the efficacy of the sewage water treated with herbs was higher or comparable. Coliform and copper levels decreased considerably in the treated sample. Herb-treated samples showed a reduction in the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) levels as compared to the treated water. Conclusion: When combined, the herbs had a significant impact on lowering the COD, Copper, and coliform levels, making the native plants a valuable source for the treatment of sewage water.

The Role of Gender in Household Financial Decision-Making: A Survey-Based Analysis in Urban India

This research paper explores the role of gender in household financial decision-making within urban India, focusing on the disparities between male and female respondents in financial literacy, investment behaviors, risk preferences, and decision-making authority. A survey-based methodology was employed, targeting 500 households across five major urban centers in North India. The study found that males generally exhibited higher financial literacy, were more likely to engage in riskier investments such as mutual funds and stocks, and predominantly controlled major financial decisions. In contrast, females preferred safer investments like gold and fixed deposits and were primarily responsible for daily expenses and savings. Education and employment emerged as critical factors influencing financial behaviors, with higher educational attainment and active economic participation correlating with better financial literacy and decision-making capabilities. These findings underscore the need for targeted financial education programs, policies promoting higher education and employment for women, and improved access to professional financial advice. By addressing these disparities, stakeholders can enhance women's financial empowerment and promote gender equality in financial decision-making, contributing to the broader economic development and stability of urban India.

NEIGHBOURHOOD ACCESSIBILITY AND ACTIVE LIVING PATTERN OF CHILDREN: A PILOT STUDY IN NAGPUR, INDIA

Purpose: This paper explores the association between neighbourhood accessibility and the active living patterns (ALP) of children in urban India. Focusing on outdoor out-of-school physical activities (OOPA), mode of travel to school (MTS), mode of travel to the neighbourhood (MTN), and habitual active independent home range (HAIHR), it seeks to understand the relationship between active living and neighbourhood outdoor physical environment (OPE) during middle childhood.Methodology: Defining the variable within the framework of the ‘Adapted Ecological Model for Active Living in Urban Indian Children’, this study employed a cross-sectional quantitative method to examine two neighborhoods in Nagpur, India. The subjective data was collected from 43 in-person surveys of 8–12-year-old children and objective data was computed using GIS.Results: Children’s ALP had significant positive associations with built density, traffic exposure, parents’ perception of personal safety, neighbourhood physical activity (PA) environment, license for independent mobility (IM) and gender. Children’s OOPA was significantly positively correlated with built density, neighbourhood PA environment, motivation for PA, license for IM and gender. Children preferred active MTS to school if schools were close by and they had licenses for IM whereas their active MTN depended on parent’s positive perceptions of personal safety in the neighbourhood and permission for IM. Longer HAIHR was related to lesser traffic, licenses for IM and parents’ positive perceptions of neighbourhood safety.Conclusion: This study has identified several key neighbourhood OPE (density, traffic, parental safety concerns, PA environment), individual (gender, motivation), and interpersonal (license IM) correlates shaping urban children’s active living in India.

Micronutrient deficiency, dietary diversity, and sociodemographic and lifestyle determinants of dietary diversity among pregnant slum-dwelling women in Pune, India

BackgroundIncreasing dietary diversity is a sustainable solution to combat micronutrient deficiencies. Given the large slum population in urban India, double burden of malnutrition, nutritional transition among slum-dwellers, and limited studies focusing on dietary intake and diversity among pregnant slum-dwellers, this study aimed to 1) describe macro- and micronutrient intakes and compare them with guidelines, 2) describe dietary diversity and intake of unhealthy foods and, 3) investigate the sociodemographic and lifestyle determinants of adequate dietary diversity among pregnant slum-dwellers in Pune, Maharashtra, India.MethodsThis study presents cross-sectional data of 454 pregnant slum-dwelling women completing mid-pregnancy visit collected from a larger cohort study. Sociodemographic and lifestyle data were collected at baseline (< 12 weeks gestation). Dietary data (24-h dietary recall) were collected in mid-pregnancy (23 ± 2 weeks). Nutrient intakes were compared with the Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) for pregnant Indian women. Dietary diversity score (DDS, range 0–10) and unhealthy food (sweet snacks, sweet beverages, fried and salty food) group score (range 0–3) were calculated as per FAO guidelines. Multivariate logistic regression was conducted to examine determinants of adequate dietary diversity (DDS ≥ 5).ResultsThe average age of women was 25 (4.5) years. The median (Q1, Q3) total energy and protein intakes were 1771 (1456, 2185) kcal/d and 44.7 (34.7, 55.0) g/d, respectively. Total energy and protein were consumed as per EAR by 37% and 54% of women, respectively. Forty percent of women exceeded the recommended energy intake from carbohydrates. Diets of slum-dwelling women were lacking in multiple micronutrients (especially iron, zinc, riboflavin, thiamine, folate). The mean DDS was 4.2 ± 1.2 and 36.5% of the women had DDS ≥ 5. All women consumed mainly cereal-based starchy staples; 80% consumed pulses and legumes, and 60% consumed other vegetables. Fifty-nine percent of women consumed ≥ 2 unhealthy food groups. Higher educational and occupational status of the primary earning members of the family and lower parity were determinants of adequate dietary diversity.ConclusionThe diets of pregnant slum-dwelling women were lacking in numerous micronutrients. Dietary counselling programs need to be tailored to the socioeconomic backgrounds of pregnant slum-dwelling women and involve their family members to improve reach and effectiveness.