Independent Reasons Research Articles

Hierarchical Attention Master–Slave for heterogeneous multi-agent reinforcement learning

Most multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) approaches optimize strategy by improving itself, while ignoring the limitations of homogeneous agents that may have single function. However, in reality, the complex tasks tend to coordinate various types of agents and leverage advantages from one another. Therefore, it is a vital research issue how to establish appropriate communication among them and optimize decision. To this end, we propose a Hierarchical Attention Master–Slave (HAMS) MARL, where the Hierarchical Attention balances the weight allocation within and among clusters, and the Master–Slave architecture endows agents independent reasoning and individual guidance. By the offered design, information fusion, especially among clusters, is implemented effectively, and excessive communication is avoided, moreover, selective composed action optimizes decision. We evaluate the HAMS on both small and large scale heterogeneous StarCraft II micromanagement tasks. The proposed algorithm achieves the exceptional performance with more than 80% win rates in all evaluation scenarios, which obtains an impressive win rate of over 90% in the largest map. The experiments demonstrate a maximum improvement in win rate of 47% over the best known algorithm. The results show that our proposal outperforms recent state-of-the-art approaches, which provides a novel idea for heterogeneous multi-agent policy optimization.

The Case Against Race-Based Quotas in Pharmaceutical Trials.

This Article is the first to offer a comprehensive case against using racial quotas in pharmaceutical studies by providing a detailed examination of the arguments for and against the practice. It begins by discussing the current racial classification system, calls for racial quotas in pharmaceutical trials, and the troubling history of combining race and scientific investigation. It next examines the cautionary tale of BiDil, the first drug authorized by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in only Black people. The third part of the Article sets forth the arguments against racial quotas. The fourth part provides legal analysis of these arguments, concluding that racial quotas in pharmaceutical trials likely would not satisfy the strict scrutiny standard for two independent reasons. The fifth part evaluates the alleged benefits of racial quotas and demonstrates that when properly understood they are insignificant in comparison to the disadvantages. The final part weighs the evidence to arrive at a conclusion and considers future implications.Ultimately, this Article provides a valuable framework for assessing the legal and pragmatic implications not just for pharmaceutical trial quotas but also for other racial-classification issues in health care. For example, while it presents a cumulative case against the proposed practice of racial quotas in pharmaceutical trials, many of the same arguments presented are also applicable to the currently mandated practice of acquiring and reporting racial data of pharmaceutical trial participants. It will serve as a valuable resource not only for opponents of racial quotas but also for advocates. For example, this Article provides numerous race-neutral alternatives for consideration. And the strong case against racial quotas helps facilitate a refocus of efforts away from merely ameliorating the end results of health care disparities and instead targeting the root causes. Evidence suggests that this redirected focus on root causes is more effective at producing positive change. In this way, rejecting these quotas is not in conflict with addressing health disparities; rather, it is beneficial to it. This Article will hopefully serve as a catalyst for future research regarding best practices on how pragmatic; legal; and diversity, equity, and inclusion considerations can synergistically exist.

PENERAPAN SURVEI KARAKTER DAN SURVEI LINGKUNGAN BELAJAR: SEBAGAI UPAYA MENINGKATKAN MUTU PENDIDIKAN DI ERA DISRUPSI DIGITAL

The application of character surveys and learning environment surveys is a form of the National Assessment policy as a substitute for the National Examination. The quality of the education unit is assessed based on student learning outcomes, the teaching and learning process and the climate of the education unit. One of the factors that influence the development of student competence is the character and environmental factors. The demands of the world of work are very high but are not matched by improving the quality of good education, causing new problems in the world of education. The character survey conducted through the Pancasila student profile aims to make students not only have knowledge of Pancasila but are able to practice Pancasila in everyday life. The character survey was conducted to measure students socio-emotional abilities and the most important supporter of the character survey was the teacher. The main characteristics of the Pancasila student profile are fear of God Almighty, and noble character, global diversity, mutual cooperation, independence, critical and creative reasoning. Noble character in students must be fostered through learning at school, the unsuccessful character survey results in students not being able to develop optimally. The learning environment survey explores information related to the quality of learning and the school climate that can support learning which includes a school safety climate, school diversity climate, socio-economic index, learning quality and teacher development.

Prespektif orang tua dan guru dalam perkembangan karakter profil pelajar Pancasila: SD Muhammadiyah 1 GKB

This study aims to determine the character development of students in the dimensions of the Pancasila student profile as a form of evaluation in the framework of following up the independence curriculum that has been implemented at SD Muhammadiyah 1 GKB in the 2021/2022 academic year. This research is a qualitative descriptive study. The data collection method used in this study was a survey, while the data collection technique used an instrument in the form of a questionnaire. The data was analyzed using the percentage of questionnaire data as an evaluation in the framework of following up the independence curriculum that had been implemented at SD Muhammadiyah 1 GKB. The results of this analysis show changes in IKM education services, project learning and implementation of Pancasila student profile strengthening projects, namely: faith, piety to God Almighty and noble character, global diversity, mutual cooperation, independent critical reasoning, and creative filled by people parents and teachers show that the implementation of the independent curriculum at SD Muhammadiyah 1 GKB is in very good criteria.

Joint reasoning with knowledge subgraphs for Multiple Choice Question Answering

Humans are able to reason from multiple sources to arrive at the correct answer. In the context of Multiple Choice Question Answering (MCQA), knowledge graphs can provide subgraphs based on different combinations of questions and answers, mimicking the way humans find answers. However, current research mainly focuses on independent reasoning on a single graph for each question–answer pair, lacking the ability for joint reasoning among all answer candidates. In this paper, we propose a novel method KMSQA, which leverages multiple subgraphs from the large knowledge graph ConceptNet to model the comprehensive reasoning process. We further encode the knowledge graphs with shared Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) and perform joint reasoning across multiple subgraphs. We evaluate our model on two common datasets: CommonsenseQA (CSQA) and OpenBookQA (OBQA). Our method achieves an exact match score of 74.53% on CSQA and 71.80% on OBQA, outperforming all eight baselines.

The Fundamentals (Usul) of Maqasidi Tafsir

This article discusses the topic of maqasid-based tafsir (exegesis) by investigating its origin based on the founding studies of early exegetes, and the renewed insights of the modern and contemporary maqasidi scholars and exegetes at the level of conceptualisation and applications. This paper aims to bring to light that the maqasid-based exegesis is not completely different from the early heritage of exegesis, nor is it different from the renewed exegesis in every era and place. Rather, it deserved such depiction because of the extra focus on maqasid and profound consideration of its implementation and activation. Moreover, this paper deliberates the rules, regulations, and conditions related to maqasid-based exegesis which are not exclusive to it, but they are part of the general rules and fundamentals of exegesis that guide the exegetes in dealing with the maqasid of the Holy Qur’an, which we consider as rational fundamentals of exegesis because they are related to the spectrum of reflection and independent reasoning.

The Past, Present, and Future of Domestic Investment Laws and International Economic Law

AbstractThis article considers the past, present, and future of domestic investment laws. Its focus is on the ‘facilitative’ investment law, which aims to encourage foreign investment by granting substantive protections to foreign investors and consent to international arbitration over disputes with foreign investors. The article first contends that states had independent reasons to enact such facilitative investment laws alongside investment treaties, even though investment treaties perform very similar functions. Secondly, the article argues that investment laws can be characterized either as unilaterally assumed international obligations of states or simply as domestic laws of states, with differing consequences under each characterization. Thirdly, the article proposes four possible futures for facilitative investment laws: contamination, continuation, compromise, and contestation.

Penguatan Pendidikan Karakter Melalui Internalisasi Profil Pelajar Pancasila Pada Siswa Kelas 3 (Studi di SDN 1 Popongan)

The aim of this study is to find out what activities are carried out to strengthen character education with the internalization model of Pancasila student profiles in grade 3 students at SDN 1 Popongan. This research is a descriptive research. Through several steps from collecting data, analyzing data, interpreting data to drawing conclusions. Data obtained through observation and documentation. The results of the research show that in grade 3 SDN 1 Popongan in strengthening character education through several methods such as exemplary, habituation, giving directions/warnings and motivation. There are activities carried out by the grade 3 students which indicate an internalization of the values ​​of the Pancasila student profile, namely morning literacy activities, class pickets and being with the school environment.The dimensions of values ​​reflected in these activities include having a noble character, global diversity, mutual cooperation, independence, critical and creative reasoning.

PARADIGM RELEVANCE OF QURANIC EDUCATION TO PANCASILA STUDENT PROFILES FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD

The background of this research is that education must be able to integrate divine and human values as formulated in the national education system that the essence of education has the goal of realizing the good personality of students. Based on this, the purpose of this study is to explore the paradigm of Quranic education and then interpret the profile of Pancasila students and find the relevance between Quranic education and the profile of Pancasila students. The method we use is a literature study with relevant literature and is interpreted as finding values, concepts, or ideas from the topics raised. The results of this study reveal that Quranic education is oriented towards building character guided by revelation which is closely related to monotheism and all aspects of life; the characteristics of Pancasila students which are the efforts of the Indonesian government to build the character of its citizens to comply with Pancasila values which consist of six components namely faith, fear of God Almighty, and noble character, global diversity, mutual cooperation, independence, critical and creative reasoning; As for the relevance of the six profiles of Pancasila students, they refer to the verses of the Al-Qur'an as the characteristics of the six profiles.

A New Perspective on Time and Physical Laws

Craig Callender claims that ‘time is the great informer’, meaning that the directions in which our ‘best’ physical theories inform are temporal. This is intended to be a metaphysical claim, and as such expresses a relationship between the physical world and information-gathering systems such as ourselves. This article gives two counterexamples to this claim, illustrating the fact that time and informative strength doubly dissociate, so the claim cannot be about physical theories in general. The first is a case where physical theories inform in directions that we have no reason to regard as temporal. The second is a case where our best physical theories fail to inform in directions that we have independent (pre-theoretic) reasons to regard as temporal. Taking these two cases into account suggests that the connection Callender makes between time and informativeness is perspectival. The second case demonstrates that although scientists often seek information in temporal directions, the behaviour of the physical world can present serious difficulties for finding it. In response, this article proposes a perspectival reading of Callender’s claim, according to which the connection between time and informative strength has more to do with the aims and objectives of science than the workings of the physical world.

A HOROR Theory for Introspective Consciousness

Higher-order theories of consciousness typically account for introspection in terms of one's higher-order thoughts being conscious, which would require a third-order thought — i.e.a thought about a thought about a mental state. In this work, we offer an alternative account of introspection that builds on the recent HigherOrder Representation of a Representation (HOROR) theory of phenomenal consciousness. According to HOROR theory, phenomenal consciousness consists in having the right kind of higher-order representation. We claim that this theory can be extended to introspection by recognizing that there is a distinctive kind of consciousness — i.e. introspective consciousness — which can be accounted for as the theory does for phenomenal consciousness generally. We call this novel view: Higher-Order Representation Intentionally For Introspective Consciousness (HORIFIC). We argue that there are independent reasons for thinking that introspective consciousness can be either 'stimuli-induced' or 'self-triggered' and that one of the benefits of the view we develop is that it can embrace a pluralist approach. Our view also accounts for what specific mental state is represented by a particular higher-order representation, and for the way in which we are aware of changes, transitions, and boundaries between mental states in specific cases of introspective consciousness.

Peculiarities of employment of employees with family responsibilities

The article analyzes the provision of equality in employment, which cannot be ignored, is the prevention of discrimination on the basis of such a criterion as family responsibilities, which in today’s conditions can act as an independent reason, moreover, it applies to employees of any gender, and not only women The domestic legislation was studied, which does not provide a definition of the term «employees with family responsibilities». However, according to the norms of international acts, men and women who have family responsibilities towards their dependent children are considered to be such when such responsibilities limit their ability to train, access, participate or advance in economic activities. It was quite significant that the national legislation provided for ensuring that research groups of persons who perform or want to perform paid work, the conditions under which they could exercise their right to work, cases of discrimination would be prevented and professional duties would be harmoniously combined with family duties. The author, in the context of scientific research, proposed to reveal the category of «persons with family responsibilities» as «an association of persons related to each other by rights and obligations arising from marriage, kinship, kinship, adoption and another form of relationship (family)»
 On the basis of the works of domestic scientists, the question of the availability of benefits and guarantees that apply only to women, which is related to their physiological characteristics and the period of active motherhood, and all other guarantees that can be extended not only to women, has been investigated at the level of labor legislation. and workers with family responsibilities.

Reinventing the Human Dignity in Islamic Law Discourse: The Wasatiyah Approaches from Khaled Abou El-Fadl to the Interreligious Relation

Violence in the name of religion has never completely disappeared from discourse on religious life. Surprisingly, Islamic law is used as the basis for committing acts of violence damaging interreligious relations. There is a gap between the goals of Islamic law and practice in society. This article aims to unpack the wasatiyah approach provided by Khaled Abou El-Fadl in Islamic law discourses. This research is a qualitative method using library research, which obtains information from books, articles, and journals. This research concludes that El-Fadl provides an essential concept known in contemporary Islamic law as al-wasatiyah by integrating various scientific disciplines to strengthen human dignity. El-Fadl offers a moderate-humanist approach as a system that is considered more holistic and comprehensive in Islamic law, especially in constructing texts, understanding the context, and optimizing legal reasoning based on maqasid al-shariah through independent reasoning. This article shows that El-Fadl allows greetings to non-Muslims, greetings of Christmas to non-Muslims, interacts with non-Muslims, and elects non-muslim leaders. El-Fadl believes in strengthening the theological basis of pluralism, which requires tolerance as a pathway for creating a mutually productive life together.

The Phenomenon of Renewal in the Islamic Historical Tradition

This article is devoted to the phenomenon of renewal (tajdid) in historical Islam. This topic is particularly relevant in the context of understanding the origins of Islamic modernism and neo-modernism, namely their embeddedness in the religious tradition. The fi rst paragraph traces the origins and content of the idea of renewal in historical tradition. Particular attention is paid to the connection between renewal and the spiritual and ethical revival of society (islah). Variable and constant characteristics in the development of the historical understanding of renewal are demonstrated. The second paragraph analyzes an issue fundamental to the topic in question as the distinction between innovation (bid‘a) and renewal. It is shown that despite the rather conservative rhetoric of historical renewers, tajdid has a creative nature, but at the same time retains the difference from an arbitrary innovation. The third paragraph reveals the mentioned creative dimension of tajdid: its connection with the practice of independent reasoning (ijtihad) and overcoming imitative thinking (taqlid). In conclusion, the author notes the peculiarities of the modern interpretation of the tajdid: the rejection of a literal understanding of the concept of “age” in the hadith about renewal and the assumption of the possibility of a collective renewer.

A Critical Analysis of the Claim that Absolute Juristic Interpretation (Ijtihād) Has Ended

This article critically analyzes the dominant opinion prevailing regarding the foundation of Islamic jurisprudence (uṣūl al-fiqh) which states that absolute independent juristic interpretation (al-ijtihād al-muṭlaq al-mustaqill) is no longer possible. Therefore, based on the belief that this level of interpretation requires the creation of a unique method for deriving legal rules (istinbāṭ), a method that arguably ended with the founders of the primary schools of law. This research inspects a new interpretive method which was not developed by late scholars. Consequently, the article uses legal reasoning as an interpretive method to criticize the previous opinions regarding Islamic Jurisprudence by using both textual and rational evidence. For instance, the preservation of religion and the continued renewal of convenient sources requires scholars to reach the highest level of interpretation (ijtihād). In addition, a connection to the legal reality of the time and rulings were necessary to adapt them, an issue dependent upon direct derivation of rulings from religious texts or the freedom to implement secondary forms of evidence. Therefore, this research concludes that the founders of the traditional law schools did not develop their foundations independently. Instead, they did so through constructive investigation and analysis. Their interpretations conformed to the Prophet’s (SAW) Companions. Such a process continued and future independent scholars followed their footsteps. In addition, the legal reality in every age saw the rise of individuals who positively impacted the renewal of the foundations of jurisprudence by interpreting Prophetic hadīth which required advanced interpretative skills.
 Keywords: Absolute Ijtihād, Ijtihād, Islamic law, Independent juristic reasoning, Madhāhib

Qualitative content analysis of public responses to an FDA inquiry on the impact of scheduling changes to kratom.

The legal status of kratom in the United States is complex and varies by state. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration have repeatedly subjected kratom to regulatory review. However, there hasn't been a systematic review of the public's perception of kratom. The present study analyzed open-ended responses from the public to an FDA solicitation for information regarding kratom with the goal of providing a comprehensive assessment of motives for kratom use. To guide decisions regarding kratom regulation, the FDA solicited comments regarding kratom abuse potential, medical usefulness, and impact of scheduling changes from July through August 2021 and posted them to the Federal Register website. We analyzed comments posted during the first 6 weeks of comment solicitation (6,353) using an inductive approach via qualitative content analysis. Respondents reported 106 independent health-related reasons for kratom use, with most categorized as mental health, pain management, substance use disorder, or miscellaneous purposes that included increasing focus, treating insomnia, and decreasing fatigue. Neurological diseases and digestive disorders were also reported. Relatively few (< 2%) responses reported recreational use, abuse potential, or adverse effects of kratom. Although kratom is not approved as a safe and effective therapy for any indication, individuals use kratom for a broad spectrum of health-related purposes. Limitations of this study include potential bias for respondents with perceived positive experiences using kratom, lack of demographics data, and lack of independent verification of claims made by respondents. Regardless, this study reflects perceptions regarding the therapeutic uses of kratom and provides insight into potential individual-level consequences of regulating kratom in the U.S. It is important to study the public's perception of kratom use, which can aid regulatory purposes and provide clinically important information on individuals' use and valuation of kratom.

Bridge Principles and Epistemic Norms

Is logic normative for belief? A standard approach to answering this question has been to investigate bridge principles relating claims of logical consequence to norms for belief. Although the question is naturally an epistemic one, bridge principles have typically been investigated in isolation from epistemic debates over the correct norms for belief. In this paper we tackle the question of whether logic is normative for belief by proposing a Kripkean model theory accounting for the interaction between logical, doxastic, epistemic and deontic notions and using this model theory to show which bridge principles are implied by epistemic norms that we have independent reason to accept, for example, the knowledge norm and the truth norm. We propose a preliminary theory of the interaction between logical, doxastic, epistemic and deontic notions that has among its commitments bridge principles expressing how logic is normative for belief. We also show how our framework suggests that logic is exceptionally normative.

Information technologies in the development of cybersport as an educational potential for young people

Introduction. The Strategy for digital transformation of science and higher education (2021) adjusts the relevant vector in the context of comprehending the urgent issues of achieving “digital maturity” as an indicator of the national goal of “digital transformation” of the entire social sphere. It means that information technologies and digital educational resources are mandatory components of digital transformation of science, theory and educational practice. Cybersport is one of the innovative human activities; a kind of sport focused on the development of intelligence and leadership qualities of young people; a special educational potential of young people, acting as a leading factor of their social education. The purpose of this research involves characterisation of information technologies that are efficiently used in the development of cybersport as an educational potential of students. Methodology and methods. To analyse the possibilities of using information technologies (hereinafter – IT) in the development of cybersport, the method of generalisation and analysis of sources exploring the issues of embedding IT in the educational process and various spheres of life activities, as well as the method of questioning, were applied. The survey covered 60 respondents – students of Bunin Yelets State University. The research instrument comprised six questions, both with the choice of ready answers and those involving independent reasoning. Results. The analysis of the questioning results led to the conclusion that there is ample scope of using IT in the development of cybersport, both in terms of improving educational outcomes and extending the educational potential in general. The study showed that the awareness of the respondents was in line with their good knowledge about cybersport (50% of the respondents chose the most complete definition of this concept). The awareness of the advantages of cybersport and the purposefulness of the respondents’ participation in games showed the average level (25% of the participants note the benefits of cybersport associated with the absence of age restrictions; 25% of the respondents participate in games in a targeted way). The awareness of the disadvantages of cybersport is also at an average level (20-33% of the respondents). The realisation of personal qualities potential as a goal of engagement in cybersport shows the average level (the highest result is 37%, when the survey participants selected the given goal out of the proposed ones). The educational goal of cybersport was formulated correctly by 52% of the respondents, which is also indicative of the high level of awareness of the substance of cybersport. Among the two most important qualities required for a cybersport athlete, determination was chosen by 100% of the respondents, while 50% of them pointed to self-regulation, which is also an evidence of the high level of awareness of the given sport and the purposeful involvement in it. The prevailing high and medium levels of awareness indicate at broad possibilities of using cybersport as a ready educational platform for the development of soft skills, logic, adaptability, reaction, basic IT-skills, foreign languages, etc. Scientific novelty. The research results (its first part) made it possible: a) to characterise information technologies in terms of their importance for efficient development of cybersport as an educational potential for young people; b) to conclude that cybersport activities promote intellectualisation of educational process; improve teamwork skills, various communications building skills; form healthy lifestyle habits, compliance with daily regime, proper nutrition, etc. Practical significance. The performed research makes it possible to determine the cybersport development vector in the context of educational potential of young people and improvement of the methodological framework of the explored process in the practice of psychological and pedagogical follow-up and digital transformation of education and social schooling.

A Monument to Medieval Syrian Book Culture: The Library of Ibn ‘Abd al-Hadi

A Monument to Medieval Syrian Book Culture: The Library of Ibn ‘Abd al-Hadi

On the Authority of Advance Euthanasia Directives for People with Severe Dementia: Reflections on a Dutch Case.

In 2016, a Dutch physician complied with the advance euthanasia directive of a patient with severe dementia. In the ensuing lawsuit, the physician was charged principally with termination of life on request, with euthanasia, that is, and alternatively with murder. A district court acquitted her of both charges, a decision later upheld by the Dutch Supreme Court. Euthanasia is still a criminal offense in the Netherlands, but in 2002, a new euthanasia act came into effect allowing a physician to perform euthanasia if she has fulfilled six due-care criteria, the two most important of which are that she must be satisfied that the patient's request is voluntary and well considered and that the patient's suffering is unbearable, with no prospect of improvement. Neither of these two criteria is controversial; particular cases are controversial when it is disputed that these criteria were fulfilled. Other euthanasia cases, however, are controversial because they belong to a category that is contentious for independent reasons. One such disputed category is euthanasia performed on incompetent patients with an advance directive. Since determining whether these criteria are fulfilled in a particular case depends on the particular circumstances, we describe this 2016 case in detail. We then focus on three general philosophical reasons for doubting the validity of advance euthanasia directives for incompetent patients: the someone else problem, the problem of response shift, and the problem of normative authority. These problems have been discussed before, but our primary aim is to show how they are connected. Taken together, we believe that our two lines of argument make a strong moral case for supporting the Dutch Supreme Court's decision.