Independent India Research Articles

Bringing English Back in School Education: English in Government Schools of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh

In the immediate aftermath of Indian Independence in 1947, there was a palpable attempt to replace English with Hindi and other Indian languages to unleash the processes of decolonisation. English was castigated as the language of the British Empire and was seen to be the basis of power and privilege for a handful of English-educated elites. A new nation-state thought it imperative to replace English with other languages which ultimately led to language-based reorganisation of Indian states. Subsequently, there was the replacement of English with Indian languages as mediums of instruction at different levels of education. Such a demand was hugely supported by a large number of Indian intelligentsia. However, six to seven decades down the line, there appears to be a reversal of earlier language politics as governments in various states of India are bringing English back as an aspirational language. This article attempts to understand the context of such a reversal. It also analyses ideological constructions of linguistic reality and its hold on popular perception. Ideologically constructed realities of language become a concrete, tangible force to reckon with. The article explores the renewed interest and urgency in learning English, using the frameworks of language ideology and the Bourdieusian framework of ‘language as a praxis’. Following Hilary Janks, the article underlines the significance of providing critical access to English by historicising and denaturalising its prevalence as one of the major contact languages at the international level.

SHRI BABU JAGJIVAN RAM: A PIONEER OF DECOLONISATION MOVEMENT IN THE INDEPENDENT INDIA

Babu Jagjivan Ram, a prominent Dalit leader and social reformer, was a pioneering force in India’s decolonization movement. Born in 1908 in a marginalized caste community, he overcame systemic discrimination and rose to become one of the most influential political figures in post-independence India. His journey from a humble background to a statesman symbolizes the resilience and determination of the oppressed classes in the fight for equality and social justice.Jagjivan Ram’s role in India's freedom struggle was marked by his commitment to eradicating caste-based injustices while fighting for the country’s independence. As a member of the Indian National Congress, he played a crucial part in the Quit India Movement and led efforts to ensure that the voices of Dalits and other marginalized communities were included in the national discourse. He was also instrumental in forming the All-India Depressed Classes League, which advocated for the political and social rights of Dalits.After India gained independence in 1947, Jagjivan Ram continued to champion the cause of the downtrodden as a key member of independent India’s government. He held several important cabinet positions, including that of Defence Minister and Agriculture Minister. His contribution to the Green Revolution, which transformed India’s agricultural landscape, is particularly noteworthy. His leadership during the Indo-Pak war of 1971, which led to the creation of Bangladesh, further cemented his legacy as a visionary leader.Beyond politics, Jagjivan Ram’s life was a testament to the power of perseverance and the importance of inclusivity in nation-building. He dedicated his life to creating an India free of both colonial oppression and caste discrimination. His legacy continues to inspire movements for equality and justice in modern India.

SHRI BABU JAGJIVAN RAM: A PIONEER OF DECOLONISATION MOVEMENT IN THE INDEPENDENT INDIA

Babu Jagjivan Ram, a prominent Dalit leader and social reformer, was a pioneering force in India’s decolonization movement. Born in 1908 in a marginalized caste community, he overcame systemic discrimination and rose to become one of the most influential political figures in post-independence India. His journey from a humble background to a statesman symbolizes the resilience and determination of the oppressed classes in the fight for equality and social justice.Jagjivan Ram’s role in India's freedom struggle was marked by his commitment to eradicating caste-based injustices while fighting for the country’s independence. As a member of the Indian National Congress, he played a crucial part in the Quit India Movement and led efforts to ensure that the voices of Dalits and other marginalized communities were included in the national discourse. He was also instrumental in forming the All-India Depressed Classes League, which advocated for the political and social rights of Dalits.After India gained independence in 1947, Jagjivan Ram continued to champion the cause of the downtrodden as a key member of independent India’s government. He held several important cabinet positions, including that of Defence Minister and Agriculture Minister. His contribution to the Green Revolution, which transformed India’s agricultural landscape, is particularly noteworthy. His leadership during the Indo-Pak war of 1971, which led to the creation of Bangladesh, further cemented his legacy as a visionary leader.Beyond politics, Jagjivan Ram’s life was a testament to the power of perseverance and the importance of inclusivity in nation-building. He dedicated his life to creating an India free of both colonial oppression and caste discrimination. His legacy continues to inspire movements for equality and justice in modern India.

Celebrating International Year of Millet 2023: Analysing Sustainable Food Security in India Since Independence to the Amrit Kaal from the Lens of Millets

While the world is grappling with adversities caused by climate change, the agricultural sector has been the hardest hit, posing a new set of challenges for food security. As the developing world is still struggling with rampant poverty and malnutrition, an alternative framework that could promote climate-resilient and water-saving agriculture emerges as an exigency. In this context, climate-resilient crops like millets acquire the greatest significance as they are not only sustainable and low on climate-critical resources like water but also add to the diversity of the nutritional basket of farmers in rain-fed regions. In this light, the adoption of the India-sponsored resolution declaring 2023 as the International Year of Millets by the United Nations General Assembly is extremely crucial and needs to be analysed with reference to its potentiality to ensure sustainable food security in India in sync with UN Sustainable Development Goals on Poverty and Food Security. Given the potential of millets, this article aims to analyse innovative and sustainable pathways to agriculture from Indian Independence to Amrit Kaal, in alignment with goals of productivity enhancement, energy transition and climate action of the Government of India. It examines the policies and programmes of the government implemented to achieve the goal of Viksit Bharat (Developed India) during the Amrit Kaal.

“Whose Union?” Federalism, Funding, and the Ideal Citizen-Student in Indian University Education (1950–1960)

ABSTRACT Through an analysis of Allahabad University’s functioning, this article argues that independent India’s ideas of federalism reimagined university education. New visions of the educated person – linked to ideas about the ideal citizen – changed the kinds of disciplines and universities being funded. With support from industrial elites to buttress the new nation-state’s development plans, the state prioritised technical education over arts and humanities to serve a unified economic policy. This change manifested through increased scrutiny over university functioning and crackdowns on student protests. The Indian postcolonial state’s “centralised” federalism to manage the national economy and promote national integration impacted university funding. Ultimately, decisions about university funding were tied to the state’s vision of the ideal apolitical citizen student, who would contribute to national development. This article highlights the complicated relationship between capital, the postcolonial nation-state, and university autonomy.

Locating Subalternity in Tribal Politics in India with Special Reference to Uttar Pradesh

The study of tribal politics in India has broadly followed two patterns. The first is the preoccupation of scholars with the question of integration of tribals into the 'mainstream' or the 'real political process' which is almost coterminous with the imaginary of what can commonly be referred to as the 'learning process' of 'nationalist politics'. (1) The second approach is an offshoot of the first and scholars have been preoccupied with the question of the impossibility of resolving the issues faced by tribals within the first framework. Accordingly, this framework tries to take out the discourse of tribal politics from what is perceived as a 'narrow and partial' approach to study the contribution made by the 'people on their own' as Ranajit Guha puts it. The subaltern Studies Collective started by Guha in the 1980s provided a trenchant critique of nationalist politics. With tribal communities getting increasingly embroiled in political action with development induced displacement in post Independent India, such an approach has gained further traction. (2) The paper makes a limited attempt to study the interaction of tribal politics in one of India's largest states, Uttar Pradesh, vis a vis, attempts to incorporate them into the 'mainstream' through various practices that lie at the intersection of the 'public' and 'private' by placing religion at the centre of identity formation. Historically tribal zones in India have remained under the influence of Christian missionaries and Naxalites. Hindu organisations started work among tribals from the 1990s and their activities can be seen as a countervailing influence against the Christian missionary activities. One of the most popular tropes used by Hindu organisations was that of a creation of a ‘national identity’ among the tribals which was quintessentially a political process. Although anthropologists have long studied the process of Hinduisation' among tribal communities. The paper will show the changing nature of state practices in India vis a vis the tribals who are identified as 'subalterns' and thus be useful for comparative studies across states.

History, Fiction, and Trauma

Abstract Post independent India has witnessed several horrific incidents of communal violence. The largest communal riot happened in the year 1984, in the capital city New Delhi. The Anti- Sikh Riots of 1984, happened after the assassination of Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India. But for a long time, there was silence surrounding the incident in which thousands lost their lives. The silence was primarily caused from the trauma inflicted from the incident. There are reasons to believe that the silence was politically motivated too. But the role fictional writings have played in communicating the traumatic memory of the incident was significant. This paper studies the novel Amu written by Shonali Bose to understand representation of traumatic memory of the community. The paper attempts to problematize the decades long silence surrounding the incident and the novel’s role along with other similar fictional accounts’ in unraveling the truth of the incident. The concept of unspeakability in trauma is examined alongside the forced silencing of the incident. Keywords: History, Unspeakability, trauma, 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots, Fiction, Silencing

From Support to Satyagraha: The Transformative Impact of Boer War on Gandhi and the Indian Freedom Struggle

Gandhi’s experience during the Second Boer War was radically transformative, from espousing the British cause early on to complete disillusionment with the British Empire. Setting up the Indian Ambulance Corps to assist British soldiers was Gandhi’s first experience of organising a mass movement. The racist legislation after the war and the treatment of Indians at the hands of the British exposed Gandhi to the deeply racial character of British imperialism. The events that unfolded during the war and the post-war laid the groundwork for the evolution of Satyagraha, which later became the principal mode of protest against the British.

Partition of Bengal: Impact on Displaced Women and their Contribution to Refugee Movement in West Bengal

Indian independence in 1947 and its consequences created a major change in the Indian administrative structure in which British India split into Hindu-dominated India and Muslim-dominated Pakistan, respectively. This division also fragmented the undivided Bengal and West Bengal and East Pakistan appeared on the world political map. These partitions played a crucial role among the inhabitants of both regions and they started to leave their country of origin. Hindus from East Pakistan especially women were one of those migrants who were displaced from their motherland and settled in West Bengal. This study deals with the situation, women faced during and after their displacement in West Bengal. It highlights their movement to achieve rehabilitation benefits from the government and their struggle to be financially independent individuals. Several archival reports, books, newspaper articles, etc. helped provide information regarding refugee women’s conditions from East Pakistan to West Bengal.

The Student Labor Camp Movement, Postcolonial Development, and the Shaping of Citizens-to-Be in Independent India, 1954–65

The Government of India organized over ten thousand student labor camps for the purposes of village development between 1954 and 1965. This camp movement functions as a key to the novel idealizations of youth in the postcolonial world and the shifting development agendas of independent India. The image of the toiling and vigorous camper committed to serving the newly created nation-state came to be constructed as India's model citizen-to-be, and this figure embodies the emergent forms of postcolonial nationalist politics and ideologies of the 1950s and 1960s. This youthful labor force was depicted in the developmentalist imagination of India as literally building and metaphorically embodying the nation-state and its ideologies of physical fitness, secularism, anti-casteism, and national discipline. This article will argue that camp life negotiated a hierarchy of citizens that made the educated youth the agent of development and the villager the object of development. The running of these camps by volunteer movements such as the National Cadet Corps, the Bharat Scouts and Guides, and the Bharat Sevak Samaj brings to light how the developmental apparatus in India worked or did not work in practice for the students and the poorer classes.

Portraying Political Ideas of National Revolutionaries: A Case Study of Pandurang Mahadev Bapat

The term ‘revolutionary’ has a unique connotation in India’s struggle for national liberation. It refers to those freedom fighters who scrupulously believed in the efficacy of armed resistance to overthrow British rule in India and justified employing extremist techniques to achieve the objective. Consequently, national revolutionism creates a distinct stream of thinking in the Indian national movement from both the moderate and extremist currents in the movement. While there is no end to the literature on both moderate and extremist thinking in British India, the political philosophy of the revolutionaries has not been satisfactorily addressed by academia in a meaningful manner. While there are a few notable exceptions, social scientists in India have generally ignored the revolutionary political ideas because of the foundation of British authority over Indian land; the nation’s political development began to follow a pattern identical to the Western development model. Following that, some extensive Western influences were seen in education, economy, government organisation and administration, significantly impacting the intellectual development of the time. Moreover, the ideas of revolutionaries were, for the most part, immediate intellectual responses to the political challenges and crises that existed at the time of their birth. However, some of these topics were significant, such as formulating a critique of British imperialism, defining the national identity, reorganising Indian society and developing plans for national liberation. As a result, it will be necessary to examine and evaluate the political views of these revolutionaries in the context of the concerns and problems with which they were confronted at the time. This research explores and explains Bapat’s political thought and situates him in Maharashtra’s revolutionary and Hindu political traditions. Lastly, in the first instance, this research proposes a brief look at the development of Bapat’s political career, which played a vital role in shaping his political ideas. Then, it explores the significant politics of colonial and post-colonial times.

RAM MANOHAR LOHIA'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOCIALIST THOUGHT IN INDIA: A CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE

This research paper critically evaluates Ram Manohar Lohia's contributions to socialist thought in India, examining the practicality, relevance, and impact of his socialist ideals on Indian society and politics. Through an analysis of Lohia's key principles, socio-political context, and historical legacy, this study provides a nuanced understanding of Lohia's role in shaping the socialist discourse in India. The paper explores Lohia's emphasis on economic equality, decentralization, and village-centric development, highlighting how these ideas were shaped by his experiences in the Indian independence movement. While Lohia's ideas resonated with many and influenced post-independence socialist thinking, they also faced criticisms regarding their feasibility and practicality in the diverse Indian socio-economic landscape. The conclusion offers a final assessment of Lohia's contributions, acknowledging their significance while also recognizing the complexities involved in implementing socialist principles in India. The paper concludes with suggestions for further research, including exploring the enduring relevance of Lohia's ideas in contemporary India and conducting comparative studies with other socialist thinkers and movements globally.

Recent Trends in English Literature and Language in India

Literature is the mirror of society. Literature reflects the social, cultural, economic and historical life of human beings. Literature no longer remains limited to particular geographical, national or cultural circumstances. The recent trends in literature may be dangerous for the society or bring a new era in the field of writing in the future. The writers of pre- independence dealt mostly with subjects of nationalism and patriotism in their writings. Most of our writers are bi-lingual, some equally proficient in English and the mother tongue, and some more in one than in the other. In Literature there is an undeniable interrelationship between life, literature, thought and language. The early novels were the patriotic depictions of Indian, but with the advent of Indian Independence India grew out of her own streak of imperialism during the emergency and thus the Indian idiom began to change. The global concerns and shifting paradigms informing different art forms have transformed the nature and the understanding of literature. Now Indian English literature no longer remains limited to the writings necessarily of the “sons of the soil”. It has broadened the scope of fictional concerns of these writers from purely Indian to the global and transnational. Today Indian English as well as Indian writing in English has got its own identity these writers concentrate on different forms of life concerning various cultures.

Machine Learning for Predicting Intent of Radical Action in Text Data

Many cases of radicalism, especially violent radicalism, manifest within the context of inter-ethnic conflict and war. Research in this domain has significantly contributed to our overarching comprehension of the issue. This form of radicalism is inherently linked to the dynamics of group affiliation. However, our focus here is directed towards the individual motivation driving radical actions. While radical actions may encompass dynamics of group affiliation (e.g., the most radical pro-life activists being members of the Army of God), they also possess a substantial individual component. For instance, numerous attacks on abortion doctors or clinics are categorized as ’lone-wolf terrorism’. In this study, we sought to examine whether state-of-the-art Machine Learning tech- nology for text analysis could effectively discern the intent behind radical actions from user-generated content. We analyzed a diverse array of radical texts published online by various activists, including anarchists, Iranian guerrilla members, Indian revolution- aries, activists from the US civil rights movement, and The Army of God. Our analysis reveals that Machine Learning models can successfully identify potential signals indica- tive of the author’s intent behind radical actions.

March to Freedom: Reflections on India's Independence Edited by Mrinalini Venkateswaran. 273 pp. New Delhi, DAG, 2022. - Tipu Sultan: Image and Distance Edited by Giles Tillotson. 175 pp. New Delhi, DAG, 2022.

March to Freedom: Reflections on India's Independence Edited by Mrinalini Venkateswaran. 273 pp. New Delhi, DAG, 2022. - Tipu Sultan: Image and Distance Edited by Giles Tillotson. 175 pp. New Delhi, DAG, 2022.

Book Review: South Asian Perspectives: The Unfinished Agenda edited by Mushirul Hasan & Nariaki Nakazato

This paper reviews an interesting book titled South Asian Perspectives: The Unfinished Agenda edited by Mushirul Hasan & Nariaki Nakazato. The book provides multidisciplinary perspectives on the emergence of the nations in South Asia. It has developed as a result of an interface between Indian and Japanese scholars at the University of Tokyo. Altogether fifteen academicians and social activists have contributed essays in the book. The articles are closely interlinked thematically and yet each is self-contained. All the essays encourage discussion on wide-ranging themes and their ramifications within the framework of colonial society and the post- independent India. Partition of India and its impact on the sub-continent appears to be a major concern of the volume as six out of fifteen essays in the book are devoted to this theme alone.

Echoes of Empire: Unveiling the Postcolonial Tapestry in Paul Scott's Staying On

Paul Scott's Staying On (2005) is one of the few novels that depict the lives of British leftovers who decided to stay in India even after the Independence. Unlike The Raj Quartet (1965-75), Scott's Staying On (2005), highlights the struggle of the White and Euro-Asians in independent India. This paper will investigate the White Men and Women's burden by keeping the themes of identity crisis, socio-cultural displacement, and womanhood in view. Staying On (2005) uses alienation and mimicry to display the hybrid culture of India. It connects the story of the Quartet through the characters of Tusker and Lucy Smalley and how these British remainders struggled to maintain their identity in India. This paper will also study the residual impacts of the British Raj to display the inversion of the roles between the Occident (West) and the Orient (East).

Rural electrification in India: A wicked problem

AbstractDespite concerted efforts, several plans and policies of the government addressing rural electrification remained unrealized since India's independence. Although India attained near‐complete grid connectivity in 2018, the problem of inconsistent, unreliable and unaffordable electricity persists, expressly in remote and rural areas. This paper conceptualizes issues of rural electrification in India as a ‘Wicked Problem’ – a systems thinking approach used vastly for understanding complex and multidimensional aspects of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The problem is characterized as a sub‐target of SDG 7 i.e. universal energy access. The stakeholders of rural electrification in India were approached ‐ their feedback was mapped in the power‐interest matrix. A causal loop diagram was prepared that helped in the identification of various themes through balancing and reinforcing loops. This study makes a methodological contribution to conceptual analysis prompting decision‐making through mental models over existing frameworks used for addressing rural electrification in India.

Leo Tolstoy’s Anti-Colonial Views and Their Influence on Liberation Movements in Africa

Leo Tolstoy is one of the few Russian thinkers of the pre-Soviet era whose views influenced leaders of liberation movements in Africa. Soviet researchers explored his anti-colonial views and their perception in the African continent. Although based on extensive source material, these publications are overly ideologized. The topic is reconsidered, using previously untapped archival data, as well as publications which appeared in Russia and internationally over the past thirty years. Tolstoy’s first attempts to speak out in the press about the colonial partition of Africa date to the Italo-Ethiopian War of 1895–1896. He denounced colonial expansion as an attempt by governments to distract their people from problems at home and force them to sacrifice themselves for business and political interests of others. Tolstoy advised people in metropoles not to take part in colonial schemes, and prompted colonised peoples to defend their rights through peaceful means so that the vicious circle of violence could be broken. His anticolonial rhetoric resonated in Africa, and from the beginning of the 20th century, his ideas were accepted as a guideline. M.K. Gandhi, a future leader of the struggle for Indian independence, who spearheaded a civil-rights movement of South African Indians in the 1900s, used Tolstoy’s ideas in developing his tactics of nonviolent resistance (satyagraha). Indirectly, these ideas continued to impact the South African liberation movement thanks to Gandhi’s influence. It was not until 1961 that the African National Congress (ANC) had to form a military organisation to fight against the apartheid regime. Yet the ANC managed to achieve a non-violent transition from apartheid to non-racial democracy. The success is associated with President N.R. Mandela, who shared Tolstoy’s views on the need to abandon armed confrontation.

A GOOD EDUCATION SYSTEM IN DR. B.R. AMBEDKAR’S THOUGHTS

Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedker was a well-known teacher himself. He established People‟s Education Society in Bombay and Aurangabad to educate the students of Dalit community. His educational philosophy is reflected in his lectures, his published articles in various magazines and his work in the educational institutions. He said that every educational institute should be an agency of change society. Dr. Ambedkar strongly held that education should be a priority for the society and utilised for growth of individuals with character. The present paper is concerned with his educational thoughts of Dr. Ambedkar. Dr. Ambedkar wanted a type of education that not only inculcates awareness and fulfilment of human rights among citizen but also teaches human dignity and justice in India. According to him Education could open the eyes and encourage the oppressed ones to fight and remove injustice and exploitation they are suffering from ages. He recognized that, lack of education was the main cause for the backwardness of poor people. He preferred humanistic education which enables a man to rediscover himself and ensure freedom rather than being a student of the church, school or the state. He put all his efforts to ensure the educational opportunities to all the citizens of independent India without any discrimination, for which he framed some rights in Indian Constitution.