Independent Churches Research Articles

Ex-Priests, Fenians, and the Independent Irish Catholic Church in New York City, 1878–1883

Ex-Priests, Fenians, and the Independent Irish Catholic Church in New York City, 1878–1883 Alexander E. Callaway (bio) After leaving the priesthood in 1878, James A. O'Connor (1846–1911) became an evangelical Protestant and vigorous opponent of the Roman Catholic Church. By the time he died thirty-three years later, his "Reformed Catholic" movement, dedicated to the conversion of Catholic priests, was well established. The ministry's headquarters, Christ's Mission, and its monthly magazine, The Converted Catholic, would remain in operation for nearly a century.1 O'Connor's evangelistic work was detestable to his former coreligionists. Catholic officials and the Catholic press cast him as "a bad man" who was "suspended by his Bishop … for acts which unfitted him not only to serve as a priest … but even to associate with well behaved, respectable men"; a "renegade priest" and an "unfortunate man," who lived "to imitate the Prodigal"; and even as a picture of "insanity."2 Upon learning of his death, the Catholic Messenger [End Page 117] memorialized him with like opprobrium: "he devoted his life to villifying [sic] Catholics," and "died as he lived, unrepentant."3 O'Connor's Catholic critics claimed that he had been suspended from the priesthood for debauchery and that his evangelical ministry was a sham.4 O'Connor adamantly denied these accusations. He had given up the priesthood voluntarily, not been dismissed for drunkenness or immorality.5 Having "lost faith in the Sacraments which he was giving to the people," he "resolved at all hazards to free himself from the deplorable state of hypocrisy in which he saw so many other priests spend their lives."6 Even when he was arraigned on two separate occasions for public intoxication, he insisted that he never imbibed. He maintained that he had left the Roman Catholic Church for conscience's sake, and that the "Romanists" sought to destroy him—be it by libelous accusation, drugging, or trumped-up charges and Catholic judges—in order to stymie his evangelistic success.7 Catholic opposition did not impair O'Connor's ministry, though. Official accounts claimed that by the end of his life, Christ's Mission and his internationally circulated publications had been instrumental in the conversion of more than 160 Catholic priests, and many times that number of lay Catholics.8 [End Page 118] In stark contrast to Catholic perspectives, Protestant ministers such as Josiah Strong and Reuben A. Torrey lauded O'Connor throughout his evangelical career.9 According to the New York Observer and Chronicle, he "was a preacher of unusual ability … gentle in his relations with all men … extremely courteous to those from whom he differed," and "a friend of every man who needed material, intellectual or spiritual aid."10 O'Connor "died as he had lived, a true Christian, with rock-ribbed faith in the merits of his Savior by whose blood he had been redeemed."11 The truth about someone who is simultaneously extolled and reviled may often be found somewhere between the extremes. The following narrative, therefore, avoids profiling O'Connor as either a morally compromised anti-Catholic bigot or a beleaguered Protestant saint. It focuses on his five-year transition from Roman Catholic priest (1878) to founder of the Reformed Catholic movement (Fall 1883). During this time, O'Connor joined another ex-priest, James V. McNamara, an Irish nationalist and Fenian who, seeing Vatican I as issuing in the spiritual subjugation of Irish Catholics by "Italians," resolved to form an Independent Catholic Church (ICC). In support of Emmet Larkin's observation that nineteenth-century Irish nationalists sought to "make Irish rather than Catholic the inclusive term" of Irish cultural identity, McNamara sought to unite Catholic and Protestant Irish in his ICC.12 O'Connor became McNamara's coadjutor, but the alliance foundered as O'Connor's deepening evangelical convictions and emphasis on converting Catholics diverged from [End Page 119] McNamara's political anti-Catholicism, which became increasingly pugnacious and eventually led to his affiliation with the American Protective Association (APA).13 In addition to shedding light on two understudied figures who deserve more attention, this account, reconstructed from press reports, pamphlets, and manuscript material, illustrates the complex negotiations between...

An Example of the Principle of Cuius Regio, Eius Religio in the 21st Century – A Test of the Right to Property and Freedom of Religion in Montenegro and the Neutrality of the State

The neglect of freedom of religion is relevant once again. Montenegro passed its Law on Freedom of Religion, which caused tectonic disturbances in the relations between the state and the church, prescribing the nationalization of church land and shrines, inherently challenging the legal continuity of certain religious communities and with a questionable generality, i.e. the ability to apply to all. The law provoked mass litanies of Orthodox faithful as non-violent resistance, which also received recognition by the global public. A particular facet is the aspiration of the President of Montenegro and the decades-long ruling political party to form a new, independent Orthodox Church. There is thus a unique case in 21st century Europe that a government in a secular state is officially charging itself with the reorganization of an existing church organization. This article deals with the Law on Freedom of Religion in Montenegro, its concordance with the Constitution of Montenegro and the ECHR, and also analyzes the relationship between Montenegrin religious policy and the principle of state neutrality, as an indispensable principle of modern regulation of the church-state relations, bearing in mind the legislation and political situation in Montenegro until August 30, 2020.

Expansion after the discord

2019 marked a significant change of tack for the Russian Orthodox Church with regard to its global policy. After the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople granted autocephalous status to the newly founded Orthodox Church of Ukraine, against the will of the Moscow Patriarchate, Moscow adopted a confrontational stance. By far the largest of the 14 independent orthodox churches now regards itself as a global church in competition with the Greek-dominated Constantinople Patriarchate. In this competition, the Russian Orthodox Church is not only abandoning its “Russian world” ideology, but is also in effect breaking away from its Greek roots.

Historical Routes. The Bulgarian Proto-State - Exarchate and the Tarnovo Constitution

In the form of a virtual cultural-historical route, this article presents two historical topics. One is related to the first large-scale and organized Bulgarian political movement in the nineteenth century - the struggle for an independent church and the creation of the Bulgarian Exarchate. The second topic is the convening and work of the Constituent Assembly in Tarnovo in 1879, which adopted the first Constitution of the Principality of Bulgaria. The exhibition also shows the connection between the Bulgarian proto-state established in the 1870s - the Exarchate and the new Bulgarian state, based on the Tarnovo Constitution of April 16, 1879. Keywords: Bulgarian Exarchate, Bulgarian Proto-State, Tarnovo Constitution, Constituent Assembly, Cultural Heritage

On the Impact of the Occult on State Legitimacy and Democratization Aid in Africa

The impact of occult belief on legitimacy of the state and on aid for democratization in Africa: Among politicians and development experts in Africa alike there is a growing awareness of the never decreasing importance of the belief in magic and witchcraft on political decision making since pre-colonial times. Demonstration of the control of occult forces as a means of enhancing legitimacy of traditional or charismatic rule had been considered for over a century to be the prerogative of traditional chiefs and their marabouts; now it proved to be effective for the modern political elite and the state as well. An increasing number of African states officially recognized the existence of magic and witchcraft, and they adapted the imposed colonial law accordingly. In addition magic-religious belief systems, as represented by the vodun or African independent churches (e.g. the Kimbanguists), boasting to control witchcraft, are promoted by African political leaders to enhance legitimacy both of the political class and of state governance. At the same time, development experts tried to take into account the socio cultural dimension of development; they called for an of development aid. This call was justified, because endogenization should be considered as a pre-requisite of sustainable aid; however, under certain conditions it may be ambiguous and dangerous as well. Concerning the consideration of occult belief it may lead to the promotion of illegitimate rule and violation of basic human rights.

УКРАЇНСЬКЕ ЦЕРКОВНЕ ПИТАННЯ В КОНТЕКСТІ ПРОТИСТОЯННЯ "ПАРАЛЕЛЬНИХ ПРАВОСЛАВНИХ СВІТІВ"

The article describes the main provisions of the idea of an independent Ukrainian church in the 21st century. The age-old confrontation of Constantinople and Moscow in the context of world diptychial primacy is explored. Historically, the proclamation of a new autocephaly has been accompanied, to a greater or lesser extent, by church turmoil. This was manifested in the dissolution of the Eucharistic communion, the interruption of mutual prayerful commemoration of the Primate of the churches, the postponement of the great All-Orthodox Council or pre-council meetings in the twentieth century, and all kinds of political pressure on the part of individual states-bearers of Orthodox culture.After recognizing the autocephaly of the Ukrainian Church, the longstanding historical confrontation between Fanar and Moscow is gaining momentum. There is a great schism in the Ecumenical Church, which is caused by the formation of two camps, the watershed of which, officially, is today the church issue of Ukraine. Therefore, the article analyzes the current state of separation of the Ecumenical Orthodox Church in the context of the Ukrainian church issue. The content of the position of each of the Local Churches concerned is revealed.At the Council of Crete 2016, the Local Churches unambiguously reaffirmed the postulate of the supremacy of the Council in resolving any controversial or complex church issues. Definitely, the process of proclaiming a new autocephalous church is an event of worldwide proportions.Thomas' proclamation to the Orthodox Church of Ukraine is a well-established fact. It is important that it should only help to build a new Ukrainian nation, but that is not its main task. The main thing is that in pursuit of the national, the Church does not cease to be a Church, so that it does not lose itself. The Church is not only a structure, it is a house of God in which people seek peace of mind, and can be accessed by all who live in Ukraine, regardless of nationality.There is clearly no brotherly Christian love in the maturing great schism. Therefore, world Orthodoxy places great hopes on the possible gathering of the Heads of Churches to discuss the Pan-Orthodox situation. Further, either consensus and recognition of Ukrainian autocephaly, or a major global split.

Między Kijowem a Konstantynopolem Relacje Kościoła ukraińskiego z Patriarchatem Ekumenicznym (X–XXI w.)

Relations between the Ukrainian Church and Constantinople were difficult. This goes back as far as 988, when the Christianisation of the Rus created a strong alliance between Kiev and the Byzantine Empire. There were times when Constantinople had no influence over the Kiev Metropolis. During the Mongolian invasion in 1240, the Ukranian region was broken up and Kiev lost its power. The headquarters of the Kiev Metropolis were first moved to Wlodzimierz nad Klazma in 1299 and then to Moscow in1325. In 1458 the Metropolis of Kiev was divided into two; Kiev and Moscow, but Kiev still remained under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Since that time, the orthodox hierarchs of Moscow no longer adhered to the title Bishop of Kiev and the whole of Rus and in 1588 the Patriarchate of Moscow was founded. In 1596 when the Union of Brest was formed, the orthodox church of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth was not liquidated. Instead it was formally revived in 1620 and in 1632 it was officially recognized by king Wladyslaw Waza. In 1686 the Metropolis of Kiev which until that time was under the Patriarchate of Constantinople was handed over to the jurisdiction of Moscow. It was tsarist diplomats that bribed the Ottoman Sultan of the time to force the Patriarchate to issue a decree giving Moscow jurisdiction over the Metropolis of Kiev. In the beginning of the 19th century, Kiev lost its Metropolitan status and became a regular diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church. Only in the beginning of the 20thcentury, during the time of the Ukrainian revolution were efforts made to create an independent Church of Ukraine. In 1919 the autocephaly was announced, but the Patriarchate of Constantinople did not recognize it. . The structure of this Church was soon to be liquidated and it was restored again after the second world war at the time when Hitler occupied the Ukraine. In 1992, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, when Ukraine gained its independence, the Metropolitan of Kiev requested that the Orthodox Church of Ukraine becomes autocephalous but his request was rejected by the Patriarchate of Moscow. Until 2018 the Patriarchate of Kiev and the autocephalous Church remained unrecognized and thus considered schismatic. In 2018 the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople looked into the matter and on 5thJanuary 2019, the Orthodox Church of Ukraine received it’s tomos of autocephaly from Constantinople. The Patriarchate of Moscow opposed the decision of Constantinople and as a result refused to perform a common Eucharist with the new Church of Ukraine and with the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

THE STATE AND THE CHURCH IN RUSSIA IN THE EARLY NEW AGE: CUSTOM AND LAW

Purpose: The article is devoted to the analysis of the peculiarities of the system of relations that were formed between the Orthodox Church and the authority of the Russian state in the early modern period.
 Methodology: The authors, based on the most recent research approaches of the characteristics of early modern states, use a number of examples to show the significant role of the church and its hierarchy which had both an effect on the secular authority actions, limited its power and represented the political role of the Russian state and society.
 Result: The authors point out to the informality, unfounded in any formal legislative acts. This informality allowed the church to respond flexibly to the demands of the moment, but at the same time weakened its position. The authors also point out that that being the only independent Orthodox Church; the Russian church imposed certain limitations on its actions as an independent force of the supreme power, which later served as one of the factors that caused the subordination of the church to the state and its transformation into integral element of the machinery of government.
 Applications: This research can be used for universities, teachers, and students.
 Novelty/Originality: In this research, the model of the State and the Church in Russia in the Early New Age: Custom and Law is presented in a comprehensive and complete manner.

THE HISTORICAL ROOTS OF BLACK THEOLOGY

This paper traces the origins of Black Theology in South Africa to the nineteenth century when black revolt in missionary-controlled churches gave rise to the formation of the so-called ‘African independent churches’. Not the more recent expression of this ecclesial phenomenon but its early Ethiopian offspring whose leaders actively participated in a struggle intended to secure the emancipation of all Blacks in South Africa. This struggle for political liberation was intrinsically related to the historical quest for an indigenous expression of the Christian faith on African soil. Against this background it is now possible to explore the remarkable parallels that exist between the modern Black Theology/Black Consciousness enterprise and its more dated predecessor.

African spiritual phenomena and the probable influence on African families

African spirituality is a holistic concept that stemmed from the historical, cultural and religious heritage of Africa, and includes among others, folktales, beliefs, rituals and culture. African spiritualities must be understood as originated from Africa’s soil, but also developed through contact with people from other countries and continents. The African independent or indigenous churches play an important role in the establishing of African Christian spiritualities. This article distinguishes and gives attention to the influence of African traditional spiritual phenomena as well as a ‘globalised Africa spiritual’ phenomenon on African families. When the influence on African families are discussed, it is done from a Christian point of view, and for this reason the article concludes with the role of the missional church and parents in the spiritual formation of their children.

Fredrik Franson (1852—1908): Promoter of Mission in Southern Africa

Fredrik Franson (1852–1908), a dual citizen of Sweden and the USA and an international revival evangelist, is among the most significant mission founders and mobilisers of the Holiness Movement during the last quarter of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Within 22 years he founded 15 faith missions, four free-church federations in Europe and North America and several independent churches in the USA, New Zealand and Australia. This article focuses on the episodes of his life relating to southern Africa, namely the sending of the first missionaries of the Free East Africa Mission, the Scandinavian Alliance Mission of North America, and the founding of the Evangelical Church in Swaziland in 1893. Furthermore, it deals with Franson’s evangelistic campaigns in southern Africa, his visits to mission stations, participation in mission conferences and his partnership with Andrew Murray, Worcester, between spring 1906 and summer 1907. The article closes with a brief reflection of the lasting impact of Franson and his missionaries in southern Africa.

The Convention of Independent German-speaking Baptist Churches as a Regional and Border Area

O estudo acerca da Convencao das Igrejas Batistas Independentes de Lingua Alema, e das igrejas que que pertencem a ela, mostra a importância de se analisar as comunidades religiosas presentes no Brasil, que pelas suas caracteristicas compoem espacos regionais, e manifestam um intenso trânsito cultural que e vivenciado e difundido pelas mesmas. As comunidades religiosas se tornam pequenas regioes culturais e de manutencao destas tradicoes que lhes e caracteristica.

CHRISTIANITY AND NATION BUILDING IN WEST AFRICA (c. 1880 – c.1980)

Given that religion can contribute to the unity and integration of societies as well as to the reinforcement of division within societies, the role of Christianity in the process of nation building in West-Africa is studied. The article describes salient aspects of the relations between the missionaries and the political administrations and European traders, the cultural and political aims of the missionaries and the role of the Independent Churches and societies. It is concluded that the Christian Churches contributed in various ways to the processes of nation-building and nationalism in West-Africa. This section is followed with an account of the relations between the various church formations and the state in West-Africa. The whole article is concluded with some reflection on contemporary tendencies towards measuring the value of a religion in terms of the contribution it can make to national development and movement in the direction of civil religion.

THE FORMATION OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE EVANGELICAL CHURCH OF THE AUGSBURG RELIGION ON THE TERRITORY OF SLOVAKIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE XVII CENTURY

The article discusses the process of organizational structuring of the Evangelical Church of Augsburg religious denomination on the territory of Slovakia at the beginning of the XVII century. The study is aimed at investigating and analyzing the issues connected with conducting the Zhylina Synod, adoption of its main acts and regulations and their legalization in religious life. The Zhylina Synod was the first legislative synod of the Evangelical Church in Slovakia. At this synod the first laws of institutional life were adopted, which laid a solid foundation for creating an independent legal Lutheran church organization on the territory of the present-day Slovakia. Convocation of the Zhylina Synod in 1610 was possible due to favourable political situation in the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1606 the Peace of Vienna was signed. Based on the terms of this Treaty, the freedom of religion was guaranteed for the first time in Hungary. The content of legislative articles, which provided the Protestants with freedom de jure, could be ensured de facto only at legislative meeting – the synod. Yurai Turzo a convinced Protestant, set a goal to actualize canonical life of Protestants and form an independent Protestant juridical institution. The Palatine institution allowed him to create favourable conditions for convocation of the first synod in Upper Hungary in Zhylina on 28 March 1610. The Synod was in session for three days, during which the participants of the Synod adopted the first laws of the Lutheran Church and elected their first superintendants (bishops). The authors of the first 16 laws of the Synod (provisions of the law, canons) and the superintendants’ oath were representatives of the clergy, such as Eliash Lany, Alexander Socovinus, as well as representatives of the secular society Yaroslav Zmeshkal and Yurai Legotski. Palatine Yurai Turzo approved of the Synod laws and sent them to Bardeiov printing house to be published. The printed copies of the Synod law were sent out to ten zhupas of the Upper Hungary. It served as an organizational foundation and religious institutionalization of the Evangelical Church in Slovakia. The content of the Synod laws was firmly consolidated in the true faith and purity of the Lutherane doctrine.

“An Unlearned Antinomian-Anabaptist”: Richard Baxter on John Bunyan

As far as is known, Baxter and Bunyan, the two outstanding figures of late seventeenth-century nonconformity, never met, nor, apart from a categorization of Bunyan as an “unlearned Antinomian-Anabaptist”, did either refer to the other in print. That one comment, however, is illuminating: it spans the great ecclesiological and theological fault line of the period, within the established church as well as within nonconformity. Bunyan’s commitment to the autonomy of independent gathered churches was an expression of a convinced Calvinism, intolerant of other theologies. By contrast, Baxter’s commitment to a more inclusive national church was combined with, and articulated through, rationalist and moralistic theological emphases and a liberal disinclination to limit orthodoxy any more than necessary. This contrast was enacted in their responses to The Design of Christianity (1671) by the Latitudinarian Edward Fowler. On the one hand it prompted Bunyan’s heated Defence of the Doctrine of Justification, by Faith (1672) against Fowler’s “Feigned design of Christianity”; on the other, Baxter’s defence of Fowler and his thesis in How Far Holinesse is the Design of Christianity (1671) against those who (like Bunyan) thought the book had “a scandalous design” to substitute “the meer morality of a Heathen” for the Christian doctrine of justification. This essay explores this profound difference of opinion between Puritanism’s two leading representatives on the nature of Christian faith and duty and their contrasting literary personae, and it speculates that its origins may lie in their Civil War experiences.

Україна і Казахстан у контексті світового інтеграційного процесу (публікується російською мовою)

The article analyzes the events that took place in Ukraine in 2004 and 2013-2014, in subsequent years, their influence on European and world order. The consequences of these events (Russia's annexation of the Crimea, the organization of conflicts, Russia's open war in the East of Ukraine, the military conflict in the Sea of Azov) for the global integration process are traced, and in this connection, the relevance of the study of the crisis of the unifying idea of Europe, Jean Monet, the need for it modernization in new conditions. Russia's actions grossly violated international law and destroyed the world order, thereby defining another formula for the relationship and the rules of bilateral relations between Ukraine and the Russian Federation, Ukraine and the West, including with the Republic of Kazakhstan, influenced global integration. An example of the creation of an independent Orthodox Church of Ukraine demonstrates the hidden aggressive nature of the so-called The "Russian Peace" and the official policy of the Kremlin to protect the interests of "true Orthodox" in the territory of Ukraine and a number of other states.The author scientifically argues the process of transformation of existing, the emergence of new values and standards in the interstate relations, which are formed under the influence of these events in Ukraine, on the formation of a new world political and integration order. The geopolitical choice of the people of Ukraine, which testifies to the maturity of civil society and the strength of the state,– in Europe, but Ukraine faced new huge problems, turned into a knot of world geopolitical contradictions, became an "apple of discord", a point of merge of global interests and, unfortunately, it was precisely This quality has moved to the center of geopolitics. Today there are no ready-made recipes and, especially, the program for the exit from the hybrid war, which involves Ukraine, and with it and many countries of the world. The author does not pretend to answer all the questions in the first attempt, but he tries to look into the inner world of Ukrainian society and the state in the last two decades, to understand the chronology and the essential problems of their development, to demonstrate the danger of the conflict escalating into the center of the world disintegration process, the beginning of a new large-scale war and reformatting the world political order. The theme and the fact that 5 years ago the Ukrainian Crimea was occupied by Russia is marking 5 years since the beginning of hostilities in the Donbass, when Russia violated the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Ukraine, despising all international legal acts and rules of peaceful coexistence.

The Missionary Suggestions about African Independent Churches (AICs) from the Viewpoint of ‘Reformed Life Theology’

The Missionary Suggestions about African Independent Churches (AICs) from the Viewpoint of ‘Reformed Life Theology’

Bringing the Kingdom to the City: Mission as Placemaking Practice amongst Kenyan Pentecostals in London

AbstractKenyan Pentecostals in London (re)frame their migration as a “mission” to bring the United Kingdom back into the Kingdom of God. Focusing on the case of one church founded in the diaspora, this article examines how the pastor and church members try to realize this mission by exploring the kind of place they imagine God’s Kingdom to be and their efforts to create it in London. The “spatial turn” in studies of religion has followed two general trajectories, broadly referred to as the politics and the poetics of space. Studies of Pentecostal placemaking in particular have examined how Pentecostals use church‐planting as a strategy of territorialization, by which they make their presence seen and felt in specific localities, as well as how they phenomenologically “do” space. This article contributes to these discussions by elucidating a particular form of sociality as an important aspect of religious placemaking. In doing so, I argue that Pentecostal projects of self‐making and placemaking converge in what I refer to as “socializing space.” At the same time, through its focus on an independent church, the article extends our understanding of African diasporic churches beyond the well‐studied and ‐resourced transnational African Pentecostal networks and megachurches. [Pentecostalism; Placemaking; London; Kenya; African Diaspora]

The Evangelicalisation of Black Pentecostalism in the AFM of SA (1940 -1975): A Turning Point

The Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) of South Africa, a Pentecostal denomination founded in 1908 by an American missionary, John G Lake, attracted a large following of blacks in South Africa from its inception. This denomination contributed a large body of Zionist churches to the African Independent Church movement. Among its black members before and during the 1940s, it was Zionist-like—only undergoing changes between 1943 and 1975 resulting in it becoming outright evangelical. This was a turning point in the history of the AFM and black Pentecostals specifically, as it brought this large body of followers culturally closer to the dominant evangelical expression of Pentecostalism in the denomination. This article looks into reasons behind the changes as well as how they were carried out. Primary sources, available at the AFM archives, and secondary sources such as theses, articles and books with a bearing on the topic have been consulted. The article contributes to the growing body of South African Pentecostal history.

Messenger: Sydney Elton and the Making of Pentecostalism in Nigeria, by Ayodeji Abodunde

Messenger is a combination of scholarly chronicle and narrative biography, in which the author draws on a wide range of primary and archival resources belonging to the daughter and stepdaughter of Sydney Elton for historical and analytical purposes. The book is undoubtedly a major contribution, to the study of not only Nigerian Christianity but also world Christianity. Ayodeji does excellent work, exposing readers to the vast and complex landscape of local and external actors whose contributions helped shape modern Nigerian Christianity—particularly today’s Pentecostal and Charismatic movements. The book meticulously pieces together fragmentary information to give readers a seamless account of Elton’s life and ministries, from England to Nigeria. Overall, the book provides a faithful account of Elton’s evolving sense of mission, from the time he left his homeland in 1937 until he was buried in Nigeria, having wholeheartedly devoted himself to establishing the “Kingdom of God” in Africa and to raising men and women to follow suit. Together with his family, Elton traversed and endured both the colonial period and the era of independence until he passed away in the 1980s.In this work of almost five hundred pages, the first chapters are replete with already-known historical details about Faith Tabernacle (the Nigerian church in Ilesa, affiliated with the British-based Apostolic Church, to which Elton was first called) and his subsequent association with it. These details are necessary as the author rightly observes that Elton’s life is tied to the history of the church in Nigeria. From chapter 5 onward, readers encounter Thomas Wyatt and his American “Latter Rain” revival movement, and their subsequent evangelistic campaigns in Nigeria under the auspices of Elton and the Apostolic Church. Eventually, Elton left the Apostolic Church to start his World Christian Crusade with allies in America, through which he co-opted many independent churches in Nigeria into his fold. For the author, these events mark significant turning points in Elton’s life and contribution to Pentecostalism and the Charismatic movement.Elton’s painful struggles with American Christianity became visible in his relationships with his protégés. Ayodeji points out, for example, that the “fruit” of Elton’s approximately fifty years of missionary work included Pentecostal and Charismatic “movers and shakers,” such as Enoch Adeboye of the Redeemed Christian Church of God; David Oyedepo of Living Faith Church (Winners Chapel), and the late Archbishop Benson Idahosa of Church of God Mission International—the last named being arguably Elton’s most “beloved” protégé, whom he admonished against embracing American Christianity. According to Messenger, however, his “beloved” protégé was also the one who disappointed him the most. Elton parted ways with Benson, believing that he had been wrongly influenced by an “adulterated prosperity gospel of materialism” from America. Thus, he desisted from attending his meetings or crusades and regretted having sent him to a Bible college in the United States. Ayodeji’s account is problematic in view of other accounts about Benson’s rise to prominence, his understanding of the prosperity gospel, and his impact on the Christian landscape in Nigeria as well as Africa at large. As with other claims, one may wonder why the author failed to refer to Idahosa’s popular biography, Fire in My Bones, written in 1982, when Elton was still alive. This and other sources could have helped balance Ayodeji’s discussion, especially of Idahosa’s apprenticeship and call and the birth of his ministry.Also, the testimonials to Elton’s life and work in Messenger come mainly from his most enthusiastic and uncritical protégés. What is more, the author’s heavy dependence on Elton’s daughter Ruth for crucial information makes one wonder if the “facts” were cherry-picked. In this respect, the book is rather naïve, historiographically. Also, in most chapters Elton’s successes seem almost “superhuman.”Despite all, there exists a unifying thread throughout the book—namely, that Elton learned to be a true missionary in the Nigerian context, including his understanding of miracles. This is demonstrated by the fact that he finally realized that even the Christian magazines that he imported from the United States for distribution in Nigeria (his go-to study material) were no longer adequate or viable in the Nigerian context. The more aware of this he was, the more effective he became. One commendation for Elton is that he was a successful missionary by many standards, including his ability to persist against all odds and to adapt to Nigerian culture and society. In so doing, he singularly impacted many lives through his cross-cultural ministries. As an example to emulate for today’s migrant church seeking to impact their communities outside Nigeria, Elton is an inspiration.