Income For Rural Families Research Articles

Avian influenza H5 subtype antibodies in village chickens in four local government areas of Kaduna state, Nigeria

Aim: Biosecurity measures are rarely implemented in traditional farming systems especially in the villages. Given the importance of the village chickens as a source of income for rural families and its public health concern due to the frequent contact that exist between these birds and humans a study was conducted to assess the presence of antibodies to the H5 avian influenza virus subtype in village chickens in some Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Kaduna State. Materials and Methods: A total of 480 sera samples were obtained from apparently healthy local chickens in five LGAs where the avian influenza outbreak has not been reported. The sera were subjected to the Haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test using the H5N2 avian influenza antigen. Results: An overall prevalence of 2.9% with an individual seroprevalence of 10%, 0.8%, 4.1% and 3.3% in Jaba, Jemma\'a, Kaura and Zango Kataf local government areas respectively. There was no association between presence of pigs and detection of avian influenza antibodies, p=0.8723, OR 0.9153 (95% CI: 0.3108–2.695), but there was an association between presence of water birds (Gesse and Ducks) and detection of avian influenza antibodies, p= 0.0203, OR 3.488 (95% CI: 1.146–10.61). Conclusions: This result highlights the important role apparently healthy village chickens may play in virus perpetuation (reservoir) and in the spread of avian influenza to other animals and humans. An enhanced and sustained virological surveillance for the virus in village chickens was recommended.

Land Use Changes of an Aeolian-Loessial Soil Area in Northwest China: Implications for Ecological Restoration

China has experienced dramatic land use changes over recent decades, with marked environmental and socio-economic consequences. Hengshan County, located in the aeolian-loessial area of Northwest China, was investigated to illustrate land use changes and their implications for environmental and long-term rural economic development. The farmland in Hengshan County signiflcantly decreased during 1990{2003, whereas forest land and grassland increased. The conversion rates of farmland, orchard land, forest land and construction land varied markedly among difierent periods: 1990{1995, 1995{2000 and 2000{2003. Conversion of orchard land, grassland and construction land was dominant in 1990{1995, whereas the conversion of farmland to forest land mainly occurred in 2000{2003. The results suggested a profound transition in institutional policy and political economy of land management, including implementation of integrated soil erosion control projects, adoption of a market-oriented economy and the 'Grain-for-Green' policy, during this period in China. To achieve long-term sustainable land use in Hengshan County, efiorts should aim at increasing ofi-farm income of rural families as well as establishing land-economizing mechanisms to promote land productivity, in addition to conservation measures.

Agricultural Development and Household Incomes in Central Asia: A Survey of Tajikistan, 2003-2008

Two noted specialists on the agricultural economies of the former Soviet Union examine the effects of land reform on agricultural production and the income of rural house-holds in Tajikistan. The authors utilize official government statistics to discern trends of agricultural output at the national level, and the results of three extensive surveys conducted in 2007-2008 (N > 2,000) and one in 2003 (N = 4,000 respondents) by international organizations (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Asian Development Bank, the U.S. Agency for International Development, World Bank) to identify household-level changes. They also review the legislative framework for agrarian reform in the country; examine national-level trends in farm structure and organization, livestock production, farm productivity, and cropping patterns; and analyze shifts in size of land holdings and rural family incomes at the household level. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: D130, O130, P320, Q150. 11 figures, 10 tables, 42 references.

Diversification of Rural Families Income and Alternative Employment: The Results of Survey

The results of a rural survey in two Russian regions demonstrate that agriculture is no longer the main source of income for rural families. They are diversifiers, earning non-agricultural income through both non-agricultural wage employment and non-farm self-employment. The rural population is risk-averse, preferring relative security of wage employment to individual entrepreneurship. Although all respondents would like to earn more, they are reluctant to consider the option of changing their place of work and are afraid of losing their current job. It may be difficult for new profit-oriented employers to offer equitable solutions to all segments of the rural population without properly designed government support programs which furthermore should be targeted at the labor force of the future, i.e., the Russian youth.

Diversification of rural incomes and non-farm rural employment: Survey evidence from Russia

The results of a rural survey in two Russian regions demonstrate that agriculture is no longer the main source of income for rural families. Rural families are diversifiers, earning non-agricultural income through both non-agricultural wage employment and non-farm self-employment. The rural population is risk-averse, preferring the relative security of wage employment to individual entrepreneurship. Although all respondents would like to earn more, they are reluctant to consider the option of changing their place of work and are afraid of losing their current job. It may be difficult for new profit-oriented employers to offer equitable solutions to all segments of the rural population without properly designed government support programmes, which furthermore should be targeted to the labour force of the future, i.e., the Russian youth.

Family poultry, food security and the impact of HPAI

Most rural households have poultry cared for by women, children and vulnerable people – the aged and physically challenged. Family poultry generate 19–50% of rural family income, make up about 77% of the national flock and contribute about 98% of poultry products consumed in the villages of developing countries. Households that accept innovation for semi-scavenging poultry production usually increase weekly consumption of eggs and meat. The importance of family poultry in assisting the landless poor and the destitute is reflected in many national poverty reduction strategy programmes which identify family poultry as one of the keys to accomplishing the millennium development goal of reducing the number of poor by half before 2015. There are few other alternatives in the livestock sector that can be used to reach so many poor people in rural areas.Wherever HPAI occurs in family poultry, it will wipe out the contribution of family poultry to family food security and to family income. While compensation and restocking are important, the greatest need of smallholder poultry producers faced with the challenge of HPAI is for information, knowledge and training for HPAI-safe family poultry production.

Rural waste management in a south indian village — A case study

A micro-level study was carried out in a typical south Indian village to assess the quantity and type of wastes generated and its present mode of management. This information was used to identify the appropriate technologies which could enhance the value of the waste produced and, at the same time, improve the economic conditions of rural people. The study indicated that nearly 2364 tons of rural wastes in the form of crop residues, animal manure and human excreta are produced annually in the village with a population of 510. About 77% of the waste generated in the village was used as domestic fuel, animal fodder and organic fertilizer for crop production. The rest (23%) was left out in open fields for natural decomposition. The energy balance sheet of the village indicated that the present consumption of biomass resources was 50% less than that actually required for various domestic and agricultural applications. Anaerobic digestion of animal manure and human excreta produced in the village could yield 82% of the domestic energy required besides enriching the waste by 3–4 times as compared to conventional storage on the ground. If the traditional mud chulha (stove) were replaced by an improved chulha, each family unit could reduce their annual biomass (fire wood) consumption by about 2/3. Commercializing the utilization of coconut and paddy biomass using the village's man-power and facilities could increase the rural family income several fold.

Rural and Urban Families' Use of Child Care

Although approximately one-fourth of the population of the United States lives in rural areas, relatively little research has focused on the experiences of children in rural families (Coleman, Ganong, Clark, & Madsen, 1989; Hennon & Brubaker, 1988; Scanzoni & Arnett, 1987; Schumm & Bollman, 1981). Specifically, little information is available concerning child care in rural areas, although rural and urban parents may differ in family resources, the structure of families, the kind of child care used, how care is selected and, as a result, the kind of services needed (Boyd & Shoffner, 1983; Scanzoni & Arnett, 1987; Sherman, 1992; Shoffner, 1986). Although some dimensions of the problems in rural child care are known, little information is available to help professionals develop services that fit the needs of rural families (Clinton & Bean, 1989; Hawk, Donham, & Gay, in press; Moore, 1989; Warnock, 1992). As defined by the United States Bureau of the Census, rural population areas include the open countryside and places with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants that lie outside urbanized areas. In 1989, 66.2 million Americans were classified by the Census Bureau as living in rural areas. The South, with 28.9 million people, has the largest rural population (43.6%), followed by the Midwest, with 17.7 million rural residents or 26.7% of the rural population. About 4.8 million persons (7.25%) of the rural population now live on farms, and the percentage has steadily dropped during this century (Pins, 1992; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990, 1992). RURAL AND URBAN FAMILIES Variables of race, ethnicity, family income, mothers' income, and children's ages have been shown to influence the use of child care in general, but information about the influence of these variables on rural families is limited, with even less data available to compare rural and urban families (Dawson & Cain, 1990). Although rural-urban differences are found, many differences appear to be decreasing. Most rural families are comprised of married couples (79.2%), and 23% have children under the age of 6. The median annual income for rural families is $34,213, with 56.8% of the rural women over the age of 15 in the labor force (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992). A similar proportion of urban women (57.2%) is employed, although families living within metropolitan areas have a higher median annual income of $38,370 (U.S. Bureau of Census, 1993). Racial differences have been found, with Caucasians comprising a larger percentage of rural (92%) than urban (81.4%) areas, and African American and Hispanics making up a smaller percentage of rural (6.3% black and 2.7% Hispanic) than urban areas (14.5% black and 10.4% Hispanic; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990). Many families indicate that maternal employment is a major reason for using supplemental child care. In the past, rural women have been less likely to be in the paid labor force than urban women (Dawson & Cain, 1990). However, this difference appears to have narrowed, although mothers' work experiences may differ (Bescher-Donnelly & Smith, 1981; Brown, 1981; Hennon & Brubaker, 1988; Lichter & Eggebeen, 1992; Ollenburger, Grana, & Moore, 1989). Women living in nonmetropolitan areas are more likely to be employed in marginal or low-paying jobs and to be employed part-time when they would prefer full-time employment (Lichter, 1989; Lichter & Eggebeen, 1992). Significant rural/urban differences in maternal education levels have also been found, with rural women having a lower level of education and fewer advantages (Scanzoni & Arnett, 1987). An increasing percentage of rural families are poor, with nearly 23% of nonmetropolitan children estimated to live in poverty (Lichter & Eggebeen, 1992). Some of the reasons for rural poverty are due to changes in employment, but about 60% of the increase in rural child poverty during the 1980s is estimated to be due to changes in family structure (Lichter & Eggebeen, 1992). …

Land Use, Migration, and Natural Resource Deterioration: The Experience of Guatemala and the Sudan

There has been little research directly linking migration to environmental degradation. Guatemala has had a population growth rate of 3%/year for the past 2 decades. The level of rural to urban migration has been heavy because of insurgency and wide rural to urban income gaps and land inequalities although it still remains low for a Latin American country which usually have high percentages of urban populations. Using past population trends population projections were used in an effort to predict the environmental effect of population growth and migration. Current land distribution indicates that rapid fragmentation of land is occurring through inheritance. Guatemala is suffering from many of the same problems as other 3rd world countries: soil erosion deforestation sedimentation of water sheds and urban pollution. A variety of policy interventions are needed including family planning services land redistribution and price and technology policies that stimulate agricultural production and raise rural family incomes and labor absorption. Other policies that deal directly with deforestation and soil erosion e.g. farmer education programs and stricter enforcement of existing legislation banning unauthorized tree cutting are needed. Decertification in the Sudan is being caused by patterns of migration and population growth. Sudans population is mostly rural and settled with 11% being nomadic and 20% being urbanized. The Sudan suffers from many of the same problems as other African countries. There has been a general decline in agricultural production per capita over the last 15 years despite large increases in agricultural land use. Growing numbers of people animals and crops have placed stress on rangelands. New Water resource development has concentrated nomadic patterns in certain areas causing rapid land degradation. Deforestation has grown because of increased need for wood and charcoal. Along with deforestation decertification is increasing because land is left bare from overuse. While the causes of environmental deterioration are not yet well understood population growth is an obvious factor that if controlled would reduce the stress on the environment.

Money value of consumption and income of rural families: Two measures of economic status

In this study a measure of economic status, money value of consumption, is defined and its relationship to income is examined using data collected from 628 U.S. rural families and 1170 North Carolina rural families. Findings suggest that for rural families money value of consumption is linearly related to income, that the variance of money value of consumption is proportional to income and that money value of consumption is more equally distributed than income. Money value of consumption is more closely related to income for one-and four-or-more-person families than for two-or-three-person families. A comparison of how the two measures (money value of comsumption and income) rank rural families by consumption status indicates that income is most likely to rank families inaccurately at very low and very high levels of income. Findings should assist in the appropriate interpretation of income when it is used as a proxy for consumption.

Farm Population Decline and the Income of Rural Families

AbstractThe effects of farm population decline on median rural family incomes in states and counties are estimated. Farm population decline is found to be associated with increases in incomes of rural farm families and to have no long term effect on incomes of rural non‐farm families.