Income Differences Research Articles

Waves of inequality: income differences in intensive care due to Covid-19 in Sweden.

Socioeconomically vulnerable groups were overall more likely to develop severe Covid-19, but specific conditions in terms of preparedness, knowledge and the properties of the virus itself changed during the course of the pandemic. Inequalities in Covid-19 may therefore shift over time. This study examines the relationship between income and intensive care (ICU) episodes due to Covid-19 in Sweden during three distinct waves. This study uses Swedish register data on the total adult population and estimates the relative risk (RR) of ICU episodes due to Covid-19 by income quartile for each month between March 2020 and May 2022, and for each wave, using Poisson regression analyses. The first wave had modest income-related inequalities, while the second wave had a clear income gradient, with the lowest income quartile having an increased risk compared to the high-income group [RR: 1.55 (1.36-1.77)]. In the third wave, the overall need for ICU decreased, but RRs increased, particularly in the lowest income quartile [RR: 3.72 (3.50-3.96)]. Inequalities in the third wave were partly explained by differential vaccination coverage by income quartile, although substantial inequalities remained after adjustment for vaccination status [RR: 2.39 (2.20-2.59)]. The study highlights the importance of considering the changing mechanisms that connect income and health during a novel pandemic. The finding that health inequalities increased as the aetiology of Covid-19 became better understood could be interpreted through the lens of adapted fundamental cause theory.

Part of the gender gap in voting for Democrats arises because a higher proportion of women than men voters are Black

Women voted for the Democratic candidate more than men did in each US presidential election since 1980. We show that part of the gender gap stems from the fact that a higher proportion of women than men voters are Black, and Black voters overwhelmingly choose Democratic candidates. Past research shows that Black men have especially high rates of death, incarceration, and disenfranchisement due to criminal convictions. These disparities reduce the share of men voters who are Black. We show that the gender difference in racial composition explains 24% of the gender gap in voting Democratic. The gender gap in voting Democratic is especially large among those who are never-married, and, among them, the differing racial composition of men and women voters is more impactful than in the population at large, explaining 43% of the gender gap. We consider an alternative hypothesis that income differences between single men and women explain the gender gap in voting, but our analysis leads us to reject it. Although unmarried women are poorer than unmarried men, and lower-income voters vote slightly more Democratic, the latter difference is too small for income to explain much of the gender gap in voting. In short, the large gender gap among unmarried voters is not a reflection of the lower incomes of women's households but does reflect the fact that women voters are disproportionately Black. We used the General Social Survey as the data source for the analysis, then replicated results with the American National Election Survey data.

Peningkatan Kompetensi Manajemen Usaha Tani Melalui Pelatihan Pembukuan Usaha Tani Di Kampung Koya Koso Distrik Abepura Kota Jayapura Provinsi Papua

Any costs allocated by farmers will directly affect the amount of revenue and the level of income or profits of farmers. The thing that must be understood is to find out the size of the costs incurred in farming each planting season, it takes a source of information related to the costs incurred, selling prices and the amount of production in farming. The source of information referred to is farming bookkeeping, farming bookkeeping will provide information for farmers about the development of farming activities every planting season. In explaining their farming, the participants never took notes and even compiled books in their farming. farmers in Koya Koso generally do not manage their farming costs well. Farmers understand that land preparation costs and planting costs are the total costs or total costs in farming. While the cost of using tools in farming needs to be taken into account, because basically the tools used in farming have a limited economic life. After farmers understand and are able to distinguish between fixed costs and variable costs in farming, the next activity is to provide training to farmers to calculate the amount of revenue and income. In general, farmers consider the value of the sale is the net profit received in one growing season. So this training provides an understanding to farmers about the differences in income and income.Keywords: Competence, management, farming, farming bookkeeping

Pandemic Job Separation and Psychological Distress: Modeling Chains of Adversity

Although recent studies have linked pandemic unemployment with poorer mental health, the mechanisms underlying this association remain understudied. In this paper, we develop a mediation model to explain why pandemic job separation might undermine mental health. Using national data from the 2021 Crime, Health, and Politics Survey (n = 1,258), we test the indirect effects of pandemic job separation on psychological distress through several mechanisms. Mediation analyses reveal compound indirect effects of pandemic job separation on psychological distress through the primary pathway of financial strain and the secondary pathways of social support, self-esteem, mastery, religious struggles, and sleep disturbance. Absent the indirect effect of pandemic job separation through financial strain, we would have failed to observe any simple indirect effects through the other proposed mechanisms. Formal moderated mediation analyses also indicate that our observed indirect effects are invariant to subgroup differences in current employment status, education, and household income. In short, our indirect effects are observed for those respondents who were able to regain employment, those with college degrees, and those with the most financial resources. Our results suggest that the temporary expansion of public assistance has been insufficient to offset widespread unemployment and financial hardship during a global pandemic.

Income differences between locations of 340B entities and contract pharmacies.

To estimate neighborhood income differences between the locations of 340B-covered entities and their contract pharmacies (CPs) and examine whether these differences vary between hospitals and grantees. Cross-sectional study. Using Health Resources and Services Administration 340B Office of Pharmacy Affairs Information System and zip code tabulation area (ZCTA)-level US Census Bureau databases, we created a unique data set that contains covered entities' characteristics, CP use, and ZCTA-level median household income in 2019 for more than 90,000 pairs of covered entities and CPs. We computed income differences between each pair and for a subset of pairs in which the pharmacy is within 100 miles of the covered entity for both hospitals and federal grantees. On average, median income in the pharmacy's ZCTA is about 35% higher than in the covered entity's ZCTA, with little difference between hospitals (36%) and grantees (33%). Roughly 72% of arrangements cover less than 100 miles; in that subset, income is about 27% higher for pharmacy ZCTAs, with little difference between hospitals (28%) and grantees (25%). In more than 50% of arrangements, the median income in the pharmacy's ZCTA is more than 20% higher than in the covered entity's ZCTA. CPs serve at least 2 purposes: They can increase low-income patients' access to medicines directly when a CP is closer to where a covered entity's patients live, and they can increase profits for covered entities (some of which are potentially passed on to patients) and CPs. We find that in 2019, both hospitals and grantees used CPs to generate income but generally they do not appear to contract with pharmacies located in neighborhoods where low-income patients are likeliest to live. Prior research findings have suggested that hospitals and grantees behave differently from each other with respect to CP use, but results of our analysis suggest the opposite.

The impact lingers well beyond childhood: Child sexual abuse, trauma symptoms, and income for adult survivors

Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a traumatic experience, and this kind of trauma has far-reaching effects. While it is known that CSA affects mental, emotional, and physical well-being, its relationship to income is still being explored. Objective: The current study examined the relationships between child sexual abuse, trauma symptoms, education, and income levels in adult survivors of CSA (n = 260). The participants in this study were gathered anonymously online by posting links to the study on adult survivor of CSA support group websites. While the participants’ incomes ranged from about $20,000 to over $100,000, the mean household income was between $40,000 and $59,000. There were no significant differences in income by gender or ethnicity. Regressions suggest that while education and marital status were of course significantly related to income, both frequency and severity of abuse were also significantly connected with income (all p's <0.05). Furthermore, trauma symptoms of anxiety, depression, sleep problems, and dissociation were significantly linked with income (all p's <0.05). Path analysis showed that the effects of trauma on income were mediated through education levels. However, trauma symptoms still negatively affected income.

The Most Vulnerable User: Examining the Role of Income, Race, and the Built Environment on Pedestrian Injuries and Deaths

This study examined the incidence of injurious and fatal pedestrian crashes for lower-income and affluent communities in Broward and Palm Beach counties, FL, finding notable differences in the environmental risk factors for these populations. In lower-income areas, pedestrian deaths and injuries increased with traffic volumes, multilane streets, and restaurants and shopping centers. They decreased with the presence of raised medians, which can serve as a refuge island for crossing pedestrians. These variables all suggest that, at least in lower-income areas, pedestrian death and injury was associated with difficulties safely accessing household-supporting destinations. For affluent areas, the factors associated with increased pedestrian death and injury were those relating to recreation and nightlife—specifically, bars and clubs, hotels, and restaurants. Neither traffic volumes nor multilane roads proved to be meaningfully related to increased pedestrian death or injury in affluent areas. Perhaps most notably, higher concentrations of Black populations were strongly related to increased pedestrian death and injury, even after accounting for differences in income. Considered as a whole, these results suggest that pedestrian crash risk, like much else in U.S. society, is strongly intertwined with broader issues of racial and income inequality. Attempts to address the safety of the transportation system’s most vulnerable users need to move beyond asserting that any pedestrian project constitutes a safety enhancement, and to begin to more meaningfully account for social vulnerabilities associated with race and income.

The Residents of The Comoros and Sustainable Tourism

Abstract Sustainable tourism development in island destinations is closely linked to the positive attitude of the local people. And the full participatory approach of the islanders depends on the compatibility of the desired benefits with the perceived benefits, in line with the scope of social change theory. In this respect, this study was conducted in the Comoros, where no research on sustainable tourism has been carried out before although the attractive physical environment draws a significant number of visitors. The study was conducted with multiple research methods. First, a document review of visitor data was done to determine the tourism potential of the Comoros. Then, survey statements were compiled from the relevant literature and 504 local people were surveyed to measure their perception of sustainable tourism. Explanatory factor analysis, correlation analysis, independent t-test and variance analysis were performed in accordance with the research problematic regarding the data obtained. The analysis results show that all dimensions are interrelated and that the environmental dimension is the most important. While there was no significant difference in age and gender characteristics and perceptions of sustainable tourism, it was determined that there was a significant difference in monthly income, education level, city of residence (island) working status sector of employment and marital status of the participants and their perceptions.

Class, Family, Income and Wealth: Farming and Non-Farming Landowners in the Occupational and Social Class Orders in Turkey

This study presents the trajectory of changes in land ownership and land use and of the differences observed since the mid-1990s in the average amount of annual disposable income (and of wealth) within and between farming and non-farming landowning households in Turkey. The study makes use of the data sets of the Household Budget Surveys conducted by the Turkish Institute of Statistics (TUIK) in 1994, 2002, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2017. The data sets have been analysed in connection with four main themes: (i) the patterns of structural change in landownership and land use, (ii) the patterns of structural change in the locations of farming and non-farming landowners in the occupational and social class orders, (iii) the patterns of changes and the persistence of differences in the average amounts of annual disposable incomes and wealth within and between the social classes of farming and non-farming landowners and (iv) the effect of family type on the differences of income and wealth. The results indicate that Turkish agrarian structures have undergone significant structural changes in the last quarter of a century, and there are persisting and significant differences of income (and of wealth) at the national level as well as among farming and non-farming landowning households. However, the same kind of differences do not hold true for differences in the average amount of farm land owned. On the contrary, these differences have strong associations with family type among farming as well as non-farming households.

Decomposing racial differences in financial hardship among older cancer survivors.

6598 Background: Despite Medicare coverage, financial hardship is a prevalent issue among older cancer survivors, particularly among those belonging to a racial/ethnic minority. Sociodemographic, clinical, and area-level factors may mediate this relationship; however, no studies have assessed the extent to which these factors contribute to disparities. Methods: Surveys assessing financial hardship after cancer were completed by 721 patients age 65y+ of Black or white race completing primary cancer treatment for breast, prostate, colorectal, prostate cancer or lymphoma at University of Alabama at Birmingham between 2000 and 2019. Financial hardship included material, psychological, and behavioral domains. Material hardship included ever 1) borrowing money/going into debt, 2) filed for bankruptcy, 3) worried about paying large medical bills, and 4) made any other financial sacrifices due to cancer. Psychological hardship was measured by asking if participants were ever worried about paying large medical bills related to cancer, its treatment or effects of treatment. Behavioral hardship was measured by asking if participants were unable or delayed in obtaining medical care, tests, treatments or prescriptions in the last 6 months. Non-linear Blinder-Oaxaca effect decomposition methods evaluated the extent to which individual-level sociodemographic, clinical, and area-level factors contributed to racial disparities in financial hardship. Results: Median age at survey was 78 (IQR = 73-82), majority were female (53%) and non-Hispanic White (84%). The most common cancers were breast (34%) and prostate (27%), followed by lung (17%), lymphoma (9%) and colorectal (14%). Ninety percent were diagnosed at an early stage and median time from diagnosis to survey was 8y (IQR = 5-12). There were no significant clinical differences between Black and white patients. Overall, 22% reported any financial hardship; 14% material, 3% behavioral, and 14% psychological. Black, compared to White participants reported significantly (p &lt; 0.001) higher rates of overall (39% v 18%), material (29% v 11%), and psychological (27% v 11%) financial hardship. Notably, Black patients had higher rates of being unable to cover cancer-related costs (23% v 7%), worrying about paying large medical bills (27% v 11%), and having to borrow money or go into debt (9% v 3%). Overall, the observed characteristics explained 81% of racial differences in financial hardship among cancer survivors, primarily by differences in income (24%), cancer diagnosis and stage (22%), and area deprivation (15%). Conclusions: These results identify primary contributors to racial disparities in financial hardship among older cancer survivors, which can be used to develop interventions aimed at eliminating inferior healthcare outcomes experienced by certain racial groups, inform policy, and allocate resources to those at greatest risk for financial hardship.

Risk of financial stressors in patients diagnosed with cancer: Lessons from a nationwide financial navigation program.

e18662 Background: Financial toxicity associated with a cancer diagnosis exacerbates the financial crisis in cancer patients and their families. Financial crisis is associated with poor outcomes due to both non-medical and medical hardships. Family Reach, a US-based nonprofit, is dedicated to removing financial barriers standing between cancer patients and their treatment through comprehensive financial navigation. In this study, we sought to understand the prevalence of medical and non-medical financial stressors in a Family Reach cohort. Methods: Patient application data (provided by patients, caregivers, or case workers) from the Family Reach program received between March 2020 and June 2022 were included in the analysis. Data included patient demographics, clinical attributes, financial attributes, and medical and non-medical financial stressors (described below). Significant associations between stressors and patient characteristics [X2 test and Odds Ratios (OR)] are presented. Results: A total of 10,558 applications representing 50 states and D.C. were processed in the study period. Data was stratified by type of cancer (55% solid vs. 38% hematologic), age of patient (32% pediatric, 32% AYA, &amp; 36% adult), and patient race &amp; ethnicity [41% non-Hispanic White (W), 22% non-Hispanic Black (B), 16% Hispanic/Latinx (H/L)]. Ninety-two percent had annual household income &lt; $70,000 (US median -$70,784 in 2021). Race and ethnicity differences: Eighty-five percent B and 84% H/L patients had an annual household income &lt; $50,000, as compared to 65% W patients (X2p &lt; 0.05), and more likely to belong to single-parent households (59% B, 40% H/L, 30% W, X2 p &lt; 0.05). B and H/L patients were at a higher risk of food insecurity (B vs. W, OR = 1.8, H/L vs. W, OR = 1.9), utility shut-off (B vs. W, OR = 1.9, H/L vs. W, OR = 1.4), phone shut-off (B vs. W, OR = 2.0, H/L vs. W, OR = 1.2) and houselessness (B vs. W, OR = 1.8, H/L vs. W, OR = 1.7), compared to W patients, after adjusting for geography. Age of cancer onset: No income differences were observed between pediatric, AYA, &amp; adult patients. Adult (OR = 3.2) &amp; AYA (OR = 1.9) patients had a higher risk of unpaid medical expenses, as compared to pediatric patients, after adjusting for income &amp; geography. While no significant differences were noted between solid and heme cancers, lung patients were at a higher risk of financial distress from non-medical expenses (e.g., risk of homelessness OR = 1.4) as compared to breast, colon, and prostate combined, after adjusting for income &amp; geography. Conclusions: To our knowledge, this is the first analysis of financial stressors in a US national cohort of cancer patients and receiving financial navigation. The higher prevalence of financial stressors in patients of color in this self-selected group indicates that interventions addressing cancer need to integrate social determinants of health.

Home and Away: Drivers and Perceptions of Migration Among Urban Migrants and Their Rural Families in the Lower Mekong River Basin of Cambodia

Cambodian cities continue to experience major growth, due principally to in-country migration. However, the recent trajectory and historical context of urbanisation differs from other Asian countries and as such are less investigated. Using a framework of interconnected migration factors, this article reports on rural-to-urban migration in five provinces around Phnom Penh—from the perspective of both urban migrants and their rural family members. The work examines the economic, environmental, and sociocultural factors influencing migrants’ current and desired movements, changing livelihood activities, and the permanency of migration choices. While there is evidence to support three major theories of migration—income differentials, environmental change, and social networks—it is argued that none of these alone explains current migration patterns. Explanations of Cambodian migration must account for the powerful attraction of home villages and kin relations, as well as the inseparability of two exogenous factors: the proliferation of microfinance (MFI) and the rise of the garment industry. The results show distinct patterns of migration with implications for adaptation, precarity, and rural livelihoods.

The Effect of Economic Growth and Income Inequality on Poverty in Central Sulawesi Province Period 2011-2022

The purpose of this study is to ascertain how differences in income and poverty in Central Sulawesi Province are affected by the 2011-2020 economic growth. The poverty reduction rate in Central Sulawesi Province is the best trading location for Sulawesi. However, the poverty rate for Sulawesi Province is still higher than the average across Sulawesi Province. Secondary data for this type of research were obtained from the Central Bureau of Statistics, and multiple linear regression was used as a data analysis tool. The results show that between 2011 and 2020, income attractiveness in Central Sulawesi Province has a positive and negligible impact on poverty, but economic expansion has a minimal long-term impact on poverty as well

The social state as a condition for the emergence and development of charity

The article is devoted to the study of the welfare state as a condition for the emergence and development of charity in Ukraine, because charity and charitable activity in the conditions of transformational challenges have become an important part of social and legal life. During the research, theoretical analysis, synthesis, systematization of current legal documents and the method of theoretical-structural refinement of the conceptual apparatus were applied. Social functioning is a tool for maintaining stability within the state, where there is a difference in income between the strata of the population. The fulfillment of the social duty by the state reduces the tension and dissatisfaction of population groups with insufficient income. Stability is a primary condition for ensuring economic growth, internal and external security. A social state should understood as a certain type of state, which differs from others by the priority of fulfilling a social function in the implementation of state policy. The main tasks of the state are: creation of a legally approved system of mechanisms and tools for the implementation of social functions; protection of the rights and observance of the interests of all citizens of the country on equal terms; implementation of the social component in all spheres of society. The strategic direction of the formation of civil society is the expansion of the scope of charity. Its nature consists in fulfilling a social function and uniting society. Modern charity is an objectively necessary typical practice of social interaction, supported by the system of institutions of social assistance, manifested in the forms of civic initiatives aimed at the integrative development of a harmonious social environment. Charitable activity is a necessary factor in the formation of civil society. Participation in it serves the social mobilization of society and forms the subject’s civic activity based on the principles of social solidarity. The social content of charity is a set of areas of socially significant activity that constitute voluntary selfless assistance to citizens and legal entities. The development of the institution of charity will allow consolidating the nation and humanizing the existing social relations.

Quality of life and associated factors among community-dwelling adults with multimorbidity in Shanghai, China: A cross-sectional study.

To compare the quality of life of patients with and without multimorbidity and investigate potential factors related to the quality of life in patients with multimorbidity. A descriptive cross-sectional study. This study included 1778 residents with chronic diseases, including single disease (1255 people, average age: 60.78 ± 9.42) and multimorbidity (523 people, average age: 64.03 ± 8.91) groups, who were recruited from urban residents of Shanghai through a multistage, stratified, probability proportional to size sampling method. The quality of life was measured using the World Health Organization Quality of Life Questionnaire. The socio-demographic data and psychological states were measured using a self-made structured questionnaire, Self-rating Anxiety Scale, and Self-rating Depression Scale. Differences in demographic characteristics were estimated using Pearson's chi-squared test, and independent t-test or one-way ANOVA followed by S-N-K test was used to compare the mean quality of life. Multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to identify risk factors for multimorbidity. There were differences in age, education, income, and BMI between single-disease and multimorbidity groups, but no differences in gender, marriage, and occupation. Multimorbidity had lower quality of life, reflected in all four domains. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that low level of education, low income, number of diseases, depression, and anxiety were negatively related to quality of life in all domains.

Dimensions and dynamics of spatial wage inequality in Seoul, 2006 to 2018

ABSTRACT This study analysed the dimensions and patterns of spatial wage income inequality in Seoul from 2006 to 2018. A Theil decomposition was applied to National Health Insurance Service administrative big data of all Seoul residents. Three distinct dimensions of spatial wage inequality (‘regional wage income differences’, ‘within-regions income inequality’ and ‘between-regions income inequality’) were confirmed using factor analysis. A subsequent cluster analysis identified four major district patterns of wage inequality evolutions, including a pattern of triple ‘highs’ and another of triple ‘lows’ of average wage income, within-low-level administrative areas (dongs) inequality and between-dongs inequality. These dimensions and dynamic patterns of spatial income inequality in Seoul were interlinked and they co-evolved with the development of the city and community development policies.

Perbandingan Pendapatan Usahatani Stevia Dengan Menggunakan Eco-Enzyme Dan Tanpa Eco-Enzyme

This study aims to analyze the differences in revenue and income from the use of Eco-enzyme and without Eco-enzyme in Stevia plants. The research was conducted for 3 months from December 2022 to February 2023 at Stevia farm, Kolongan Atas II Village, Sonder District, Minahasa Regency. This research is a continuation of the Student Creative Program activities in 2022 funded by Sam Ratulangi University. The research data were collected using primary data obtained through structured observation, documentation, and data recording of all Stevia plant farming activities observed from upstream to downstream. The collection using secondary data was obtained through literature studies of previous research sourced from the internet such as google scholar, journals, books, and online newspapers based on the data needed in the study. Variables measured are the amount of Stevia leaf production, price, production costs, fixed costs, variable costs, revenue, income. The data analysis method used in this research is quantitatively by calculating the income from Stevia farming activities then the results that have been obtained are described in descriptive form. The results showed that there were differences in income results between the use of Eco-enzyme fertilizer and without Eco-enzyme. Stevia farming income with a planting area of 39 m2 using Eco-enzyme obtained IDR22.413,32 and without Eco-enzyme obtained -IDR71.566,68. Comparison of income results showed that Eco-enzyme is more profitable to be used in Stevia farming because of the increase in production which increases income.

Analisis Dampak Pendaftaran Tanah Sistematis Lengkap (PTSL) Terhadap Pembangunan Wilayah di Kelurahan Girian Indah Kota Bitung

This study aims to analyze the implementation of the Complete Systematic Land Registration (PTSL) program and the impact of the implementation of the Complete Systematic Land Registration (PTSL) program on the regional economy (access to income) in Girian Indah Village, Bitung City, North Sulawesi. The research sample consisted of 30 respondents who participated in the Complete Systematic Land Registration (PTSL) program. The sample determination was based on data from the Girian Indah urban village office which recorded PTSL certificate recipients who pledged certificates as business capital. Data collection methods used are observation, interview. The research method used is the survey method. The data used is divided into two, namely primary data obtained from respondents who use their certificates in banks while secondary data obtained from agencies related to this research, namely BPN Bitung, literature both reference books and journals. The data was analyzed using quantitative analysis with paired t test data analysis, namely seeing the difference in income before and after the Complete Systematic Land Registration (PTSL) program. The results showed that the implementation of the Complete Systematic Land Registration (PTSL) program had gone well and met the indicators, namely communication, resources, disposition, and bureaucratic structure. In addition, the Complete Systematic Land Registration (PTSL) program has had a positive impact on local revenue in the form of additional income from PPB tax due to the issuance of land certificates but has not had a real effect on community income.

ANALYSIS OF FARMERS' INCOME AFFECTED ATTACKS OF PLANT DISTURB ORGANISMS IN SUSOH DISTRICT SOUTHWEST ACEH DISTRICT

Paddy field in Susoh District, Southwest Aceh Regency are very vulnerable to the impacts of climate change such as drought and floods which have caused the intensity of attacks by Paddy field Pest Organisms (OPT) decreased as it had in the previous growing season. Some farmers make mitigation efforts by spraying pesticides according to the recommendations of the local Plant Pest Organism Observer (POPT), but some other farmers do not carry out mitigation due to considerations of production costs that are quite large and ultimately affect the total revenue and income of farmers. This study aims to look at the differences in total production and average income between farmers who mitigate and farmers who do not mitigate pest attacks. The sample was divided into two categories, each category was taken by 28 farmer respondents randomly. The results of the independent test sample t-test on production obtained t-count (4.056) greater than t-table () while for income obtained t-count (4.056) greater than t-table (2.46) indicating there is a difference in production and average income between mitigating and non-mitigating farmers. Total GKP production obtained by mitigating farmers was an average of 2.608 tons and farmers who did not mitigate an average of 2.011 tons. The average income of farmers who mitigate pest attacks is IDR 4,821,834.79 per 0.4 hectare or IDR 12,054,600 per hectare, while farmers who do not mitigate pest attacks are IDR 2,888,103.86 per 0.4 hectare or IDR 7,220,260 per hectare per planting season.

Inequality and its driving forces in residential CO2 emission: Perspective of energy use pattern

The complex geographic situation and various development levels have created differences in residential energy use patterns, inequalities problems in residential CO2 emissions among regions present a dilemma for policymakers. Therefore, this study investigated residential CO2 emissions inequality and its driving factors to provide empirical support for the allocation of regional emission reduction quotas. Using the residential data of provincial scale in China during 1997–2019, this research presents a complete decomposition from the perspective of energy use pattern and income disparities. The findings showed that the national residential CO2 emissions inequality decreased between 1997 and 2008, and then stabilized. The energy intensity effect was the main effect that decreased the inequality, while the energy use pattern increased it. For most inland regions, the within-group inequity was mainly due to energy input per income, while the inequality of coastal regions could be explained by the differences in income per capita. Regarding energy use inequality, the energy intensity effect was the main reason behind the inequality in heat and fuel energy use, but it had a smaller influence on the electricity consumption inequality. The Kaya-Theil decomposition model could be applied to investigate regional inequality in emissions, and the results help to design targeted differentiate mitigation measures for regional residential sector.