Incidental Learning Research Articles

Different roles of initial and final character positional probabilities on incidental word learning during Chinese reading

Different roles of initial and final character positional probabilities on incidental word learning during Chinese reading

What Are They Thinking? Exploring College Students' Mental Processing and Decision-Making About COVID-19 (Mis)Information on Social Media.

More and more, people are abandoning the active pursuit of news, assuming instead that important information will be pushed to them via their social media networks. This approach to news makes people susceptible to the vast amounts of misinformation online, yet research on the effects of this kind of engagement is mixed. More research is needed on technology incidental learning effects, defined as changes in knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors as a result of being exposed to information while pursuing goals other than learning (e.g., entertainment). In this study, we examined how 51 college students responded to incidental exposure to accurate and inaccurate COVID-19 information delivered via a simulated social media environment. Participants' verbalizations during think-aloud protocols indicated numerous mental processes including cognition, metacognition, epistemic cognition, motivation, and emotions. Positively valenced mental processing was more often expressed with accurate COVID-19 information and negatively valenced mental processing was more often verbalized with misinformation. Negatively valenced evaluations of knowledge claims and sources predicted less engagement with COVID-19 misinformation posts. However, in many cases the relations among verbalized mental processing and behavioral responses were complex or non-obvious. For example, participants' positive metacognition and epistemic cognition verbalizations decreased their likelihood of engaging with accurate COVID-19 information, whereas positive interest was associated with an increased likelihood of engaging with misinformation. Our findings have implications for how to accurately infer people's beliefs and intentions from their social media behaviors and how to design interventions to help people be more active and thoughtful consumers of online information.

Schema-congruency supports the formation of unitized representations: Evidence from event-related potentials

The main goal of the present study was to investigate whether schema-based encoding of novel word pairs (i.e., novel compound words) supports the formation of unitized representations and thus, associative familiarity-based recognition. We report two experiments that both comprise an incidental learning task, in which novel noun-noun compound words were presented in semantically congruent contexts, enabling schema-supported processing of both constituents, contrasted with a schema-neutral condition. In Experiment 1, the effects of schema congruency on memory performance were larger for associative memory performance than for item memory performance in a memory test in which intact, recombined, and new compound words had to be discriminated. This supports the view that schema congruency boosts associative memory by promoting unitization. When contrasting event-related potentials (ERPs) for hits with correct rejections or associative misses, an N400 attenuation effect (520–676 ms) indicating absolute familiarity was present in the congruent condition, but not in the neutral condition. In line with this, a direct comparison of ERPs on hits across conditions revealed more positive waveforms in the congruent than in the neutral condition. This suggests that absolute familiarity contributes to associative recognition memory when schema-supported processing is established. In Experiment 2, we tested whether schema congruency enables the formation of semantically overlapping representations. Therefore, we included semantically similar lure compound words in the test phase and compared false alarm rates to these lures across conditions. In line with our hypothesis, we found higher false alarm rates in the congruent as compared to the neutral condition. In conclusion, we provide converging evidence for the view that schema congruency enables the formation of unitized representations and supports familiarity-based memory retrieval.

Comparing incidental learning of single words and collocations from different captioning conditions: The role of vocabulary knowledge and working memory

AbstractBackgroundVocabulary learning in a second language (L2) encompasses crucial aspects, including single words and collocations. Research indicates that L2 learners can incidentally learn single words from captioned videos, but less is known about the incidental learning outcomes of collocations, let alone the differences in learning gains for single words and collocations under different captioned conditions, as well as individual differences that may account for such differences.ObjectivesThis study aimed to fill this gap by comparing the learning gains of single words and collocations while investigating the influence of vocabulary knowledge (VK) and working memory (WM) on the learning results within diverse forms of captioning conditions: full captions, keyword captions, and no captions.MethodsThe study involved 129 young Chinese ESL learners who completed vocabulary tests assessing their meaning recall before, immediately after, and 2 weeks after the study, as well as tests for VK and WM.Results and ConclusionsThe results showed that full captions are the most efficacious condition for enhancing both single word and collocation learning. The depth of VK, as well as phonological and complex WM, were significant factors in the learning of new language items.TakeawaysDifferent types of captioning (full or keyword) contribute differently to the learning of various language items. Individual differences in WM and depth of VK among learners should be considered when utilizing captioned videos for language learning.

Subtitles and Captions: An Instrument for Intentional or Incidental Learning?

Audio-visual materials such as TV series and films offer multiple semiotic modes and authentic language input for language learning. This case study sought to depict English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ habits of utilising subtitles and captions for incidental and intentional learning of grammar and vocabulary through on-screen texts, subtitles and captions. The target group was determined through criterion sampling because they were expected to watch English TV series or films to be eligible to take part in the study. A survey and inter-view were employed to gather data from 113 Turkish EFL learners studying at the tertiary level. The quantitative data were analysed descriptively, while the qualitative data were analysed using a constant comparative method (Creswell & Poth, 2016). The findings revealed that, by watching captioned TV series and films, most of the participants performed intentional learning of vocabulary and grammar, whereas some are engaged in incidental learning. The strategies used by EFL learners for intentional learning of vocabulary and grammar were also provided.

Memory, Emotion, and Quality of Life in Patients with Long COVID-19.

(1) Background: Persistent COVID is characterized by the presence of fatigue, mental fog, and sleep problems, among others. We aimed to study cognitive abilities (attention, executive functions, memory, language) and psychological and emotional factors in a group of participants of the population with persistent COVID-19 and asymptomatic or non-COVID-19-infected patients; (2) Methods: A total of 86 participants aged 18 to 66 years (X = 46.76) took part in the study, with 57 individuals (66.27%) in the experimental group and 29 (33.73%) in the control group. A comprehensive assessment included neuropsychological evaluations, evaluations of anxious and depressive symptomatology, assessments of the impact of fatigue, sleep quality, memory failures in daily life, and the perceived general health status of the participants; (3) Results: significant differences between groups were found in incidental learning within the Key Numbers task (U = 462.5; p = 0.001; p = 0.022) and in the Direct Digit Span (U = 562; p = 0.022), but not in the Inverse Digit Span (U = 632.5; p = 0.105). Differences were also observed in the prospective memory task of the Rivermead Prospective Memory Tasks (from the Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test) in the recall of quotations (U = 610; p = 0.020) as well as in the recall of objects (U = 681.5; p = 0.032). Concerning the task of verbal fluency, significant differences were found for both phonological cues (p- and s-) (t = -2.190; p = 0.031) and semantic cues (animals) (t = -2.277; p = 0.025). In terms of the psychological impact assessment, significant differences were found in the emotional impact across all variables studied (fatigue, quality of sleep, memory lapses, and the perceived general health status), except for quality of life; (4) Conclusions: Our results suggest that the sequelae derived from persistent COVID may have an impact on people's lives, with higher levels of anxiety and depression, worse sleep quality, a greater number of subjective memory complaints, and a greater feeling of fatigue and impact on quality of life. Furthermore, poorer performance was observed in memory and verbal fluency.

Study of English self-learning perceptions throughout video games of narrative and fantasy

Young people spend a considerable amount of time playing video games. As English is an international language, most games are developed in English. Users, who are often non-native speakers have to infer meanings by interacting with the controls, actions, artifacts, texts, and other paralinguistic elements. Narrative and fantasy video games can contain linguistic corpora of more than 20,000 words that players have to grapple with in order to understand the principles of the game, actions, and strategically determine their next steps to progress in the game. In this process, learners may engage in incidental learning. The aim of this study was to determine whether players are aware of language learning as it emerges while participating in these game-based activities and whether playing narrative and fantasy video games can lead to long-term language success. Four hundred and fifty-eight subjects completed an online ad hoc questionnaire addressing various areas of language learning while playing video games. The results indicated that playing narrative and fantasy video games can be an effective way to learn vocabulary and that the newly acquired terms can be stored in long-term memory.

Eppur si muove: Lexicography is Becoming Intelligent

The paper focuses on an ongoing R&D project which the author is conducting together with Spanish lexicographers as well as computer scientists from a high-tech company specialized in online dictionaries and language services. The objective is to develop an AI-powered Spanish writing assistant for both native and non-native writers and learners. After briefly dis­cussing the current experiences with digital writing assistants, the paper will detail the concrete project, where the lexicographers' task is, on the one hand, to contribute to the training of the underlying language model, and on the other hand, to outline a model for good communication between the tool and its users. Based on a study of practice in existing writing assistants, the paper will then formulate a set of principles for user communication that will be implemented in the writing assistant. The article gives examples of how this implementation takes place, what new challenges it poses, and how the writing assistant will eventually work. Finally, it discusses the lexicographers' new tasks and outlines some perspectives for future work. Keywords: writing assistants, user communication, lexicographical con­textualization, integrated dictionaries, glosses, lexicographical data of a new type, incidental learning, intentional learning, lemma-centred lexicographical databases, problem-centred lexicographical databases

Remote App‐Based Assessment of Memory and Executive Functioning in Aging and Pre‐Clinical Alzheimer’s Disease in a Diverse Sample of Older Adults

AbstractBackgroundMobile, valid and engaging cognitive assessments are essential for detecting and tracking change in research participants and patients at risk for Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Dementias (ADRDs). This pilot study aims to determine the feasibility and generalizability of at‐home, app‐based cognitive assessments included in the mobile cognitive app performance platform (mCAPP), to detect cognitive changes associated with aging and preclinical AD.MethodThe mCAPP includes three gamified tasks (Figure 1): (1) a “concentration” memory task that includes learning and matching hidden card pairs with increasing memory load, pattern separation features (lure vs. non‐lure), and spatial memory (2) a stroop‐like task (“brick drop”) with speeded word and color identification and response inhibition components and (3) a digit‐symbol coding‐like task (“space imposters”) with increasing pairs and incidental learning components. Participants completed the NACC UDS3 and additional paper and pencil tests. Participants used the mCAPP at home for two weeks. Participants included sixty older adults (73% female; age = 71.9±4.6, education = 16.6±2.4; 50% White, 48% Black/African American, 2% Multiracial) without cognitive impairment enrolled in the Penn ADRC cohort.ResultParticipants played 12±5.1 sessions over two weeks for 11.5±2.8 min/session, with 68% playing more than the assigned sessions. Almost all participants (98%) used a smartphone and 62% played games on their phone. Usability rating was 6.3±0.8 (1‐7 scale) and most participants reported task difficulty was just right (70%‐95%). 68% reported preferring mobile device based cognitive assessment to standard in‐person cognitive batteries. All tasks showed lower performance with increasing cognitive load (p’s<.05). Age and education correlated with both mCAPP and traditional cognitive measures. Concentration performance correlated with UDS3 memory measures and the PACC overall (p’s<.05), however when examined by self‐identified racial group, relationships remained significant in White participants, but not in Black/African American participants (Figure 2). Brick drop performance correlated with the Stroop task (p<.05) and space imposters performance correlated with the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (p<.001) within all groups.ConclusionThis pilot study shows app usability for at‐home use in a diverse cohort of older adults. Performance across measures indicate initial reliability and validity of mCAPP with attention needed to differences in performance across participants with diverse sociodemographic backgrounds.

Remote App‐Based Assessment of Memory and Executive Functioning in Aging and Pre‐Clinical Alzheimer’s Disease in a Diverse Sample of Older Adults

AbstractBackgroundMobile, valid and engaging cognitive assessments are essential for detecting and tracking change in research participants and patients at risk for Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Dementias (ADRDs). This pilot study aims to determine the feasibility and generalizability of at‐home, app‐based cognitive assessments included in the mobile cognitive app performance platform (mCAPP), to detect cognitive changes associated with aging and preclinical AD.MethodThe mCAPP includes three gamified tasks (Figure 1): (1) a “concentration” memory task that includes learning and matching hidden card pairs with increasing memory load, pattern separation features (lure vs. non‐lure), and spatial memory (2) a stroop‐like task (“brick drop”) with speeded word and color identification and response inhibition components and (3) a digit‐symbol coding‐like task (“space imposters”) with increasing pairs and incidental learning components. Participants completed the NACC UDS3 and additional paper and pencil tests. Participants used the mCAPP at home for two weeks. Participants included sixty older adults (73% female; age = 71.9±4.6, education = 16.6±2.4; 50% White, 48% Black/African American, 2% Multiracial) without cognitive impairment enrolled in the Penn ADRC cohort.ResultParticipants played 12±5.1 sessions over two weeks for 11.5±2.8 min/session, with 68% playing more than the assigned sessions. Almost all participants (98%) used a smartphone and 62% played games on their phone. Usability rating was 6.3±0.8 (1‐7 scale) and most participants reported task difficulty was just right (70%‐95%). 68% reported preferring mobile device based cognitive assessment to standard in‐person cognitive batteries. All tasks showed lower performance with increasing cognitive load (p’s<.05). Age and education correlated with both mCAPP and traditional cognitive measures. Concentration performance correlated with UDS3 memory measures and the PACC overall (p’s<.05), however when examined by self‐identified racial group, relationships remained significant in White participants, but not in Black/African American participants (Figure 2). Brick drop performance correlated with the Stroop task (p<.05) and space imposters performance correlated with the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (p<.001) within all groups.ConclusionThis pilot study shows app usability for at‐home use in a diverse cohort of older adults. Performance across measures indicate initial reliability and validity of mCAPP with attention needed to differences in performance across participants with diverse sociodemographic backgrounds.

Repetition and Incidental Learning of Multiword Units: A Conceptual Multisite Replication Study of Webb, Newton, and Chang (2013)

AbstractThis multisite study replicates Webb, Newton, and Chang's (2013) study on the effect of repetition on incidental learning of multiword units (MWUs). Even though more researchers have started to investigate MWUs, most data have been collected from university students. Furthermore, the large effect of MWU repetition on learning reported by Webb et al. has not yet been corroborated. Data in our study were collected from two university samples (EFL students in Poland and Flanders) and one nonuniversity sample (Flemish EFL learners in secondary schools). Unlike Webb et al., we adopted a counterbalanced within‐participants design. Participants read and listened to a modified graded reader in which target MWUs occurred 1, 5, 10, or 15 times. In line with the initial study, we found a positive effect of repetition. However, the learning gains were smaller, and the number of repetitions needed was different. The findings were consistent across the university and nonuniversity samples. The study concludes with a discussion of these findings in relation to both pedagogical implications and the benefits of multisite replication research.

Employing incidental learning of vocabulary through videos

Teaching is aimed to allow the language learners to practice developing skills. In our case it is vocabulary development. In incidental learning, the situations are chosen by language learners. This means that the language learners initiate the interaction by requesting the participation of a teacher. Most often, incidental learning is used in the study of foreign languages, and is considered here in this context. The learner’s request can be verbal or non-verbal: for example, he can reach for an object that is out of reach, damage his clothes, cry, call an a teacher by name, ask for a toy, food or information. This study demonstrated the effectiveness of the incidental learning approach.

Automatizing Sight Reading: Contingency Proportion and Task Relevance in the Music Contingency Learning Procedure

Learning to read and play music written in standard notation, termed sight reading, is an important yet difficult aspect of early music education. However, the music contingency learning procedure produces rapid and robust early learning of the motor execution associated with note positions. In this task, nonmusicians identify a note name (e.g., “do”) written inside a note in one of the vertical positions of the musical staff with a keyboard response. Each note position is presented frequently with the matching (congruent) note name and rarely with the incongruent note names. The present work further explores this novel learning paradigm. In Experiment 1, we manipulated the proportion of congruent trials from 50 to 100%. The contingency effect, along with contingency awareness (i.e., verbalizable knowledge of note meanings), increased with a stronger contingency manipulation. In Experiment 2, half of the participants responded to the note positions (instead of the note names) with a keyboard response. A learning effect was also observed for this task, though contingency awareness was reduced in this group. These results shed more light on the properties of incidental music learning and further suggest more ideal parameters for future practical applications to supplement traditional instruction in real-world music education.

60 Neural Correlates of the Self-Reference Effect: Neuronal Mechanisms Supporting Self-Referential Encoding

Objective:Self-concept is a mental representation of the self—an internal sense of personal identity. This complex representation is unique to the human mind. Behavioral studies on self-concept have demonstrated that self-relevant information is remembered better than other types of information, a phenomenon commonly known as the “self-reference effect” (SRE). However, the underlying neural mechanisms of SRE remain largely unknown.Participants and Methods:Here, we recorded neural activity from ∼600 neurons from 15 neurosurgical epilepsy patients, who were implanted with depth electrodes for seizure monitoring. The SRE paradigm consisted of an incidental learning (encoding) task and subsequent memory recognition test. During the incidental learning task, participants were asked to rate various personality traits in three distinct encoding conditions: the self, a friend, and a celebrity. In the recognition part of the task, participants were asked to distinguish between traits that were presented during the encoding phase (old) and traits that were not presented (new).Results:Our behavioral findings showed the highest memory accuracy on the recognition test for traits that were associated with the “self” condition, which is consistent with previous studies on SRE. Additionally, we found that traits associated with the “friend” category were more accurately recognized than those associated with a celebrity, indicating that personally familiar information—even if not self-related— improves memory recognition. Through single-unit analyses from target brain regions, including the medial temporal lobe (MTL) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), we identified unique patterns of neural activity during the memory encoding phase, specifically increased responses during self-referential encoding in a subset of the neuronal population.Conclusions:Future analyses will explore the relationship between increased MTL activity during self-referential encoding and improved memory recognition of traits rated in relation to the self, and network interactions between MTL and mPFC in self-oriented memory processes.

Orthographic learning in adults through overt and covert reading

Fluent reading and writing rely on well-developed orthographic representations stored in memory. According to the self-teaching hypothesis (Share, D. L. (1995). Phonological recoding and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55(2), 151–218), children acquire orthographic representations through phonological decoding. However, it is not clear to what extent phonological decoding facilitates orthographic learning in adult readers. Across two experiments, we manipulated access to phonology during overt (aloud) and covert (silent) reading of monosyllabic and multisyllabic pseudowords by English-speaking undergraduate students. Additionally, Experiment 2 tested whether concurrent articulation during covert reading leads to poorer learning due to the suppression of subvocalization. The amount of incidental orthographic learning through reading exposure was measured a week later with a choice task, a spelling task, and a naming task. Overt reading, which leveraged phonological decoding, led to better recognition and recall of pseudowords compared to when readers read silently. Unlike in previous reports of child orthographic learning, concurrent articulation during covert reading did not reduce learning outcomes in adults, suggesting that adult readers may rely upon other processing strategies during covert reading, e.g., direct orthographic processing or lexicalized phonological decoding. This is consistent with claims that with increasing orthographic knowledge reading mechanisms shift from being more phonologically-based to more visually-based.

98 Remote App-Based Assessment of Memory and Executive Functioning in Aging and Pre-Clinical Alzheimer’s Disease

Objective:Mobile, valid, and engaging cognitive assessments are essential for detecting and tracking change in research participants and patients at risk for Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Dementias (ADRDs). This pilot study aims to determine the feasibility and performance of app-based memory and executive functioning tasks included in the mobile cognitive app performance platform (mCAPP), to remotely detect cognitive changes associated with aging and preclinical Alzheimer’s Disease (AD).Participants and Methods:The mCAPP includes three gamified tasks: (1) a memory task that includes learning and matching hidden card pairs and incorporates increasing memory load, pattern separation features (lure vs. non-lure), and spatial memory (2) a stroop-like task (“brick drop”) with speeded word and color identification and response inhibition components and (3) a digit-symbol coding-like task (“space imposters”) with increasing pairs and incidental learning components. The cohort completed the NACC UDS3 neuropsychological battery, selected NIH Toolbox tasks, and additional cognitive testing sensitive to pre-clinical AD, within six months of the mCAPP testing. Participants included thirty-seven older adults (60% female; age=72±4.4, years of education=17±2.5; 67% Caucasian, 30% Black/AA, 3% Multiracial) with normal cognition who are enrolled in the Penn Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center (ADRC) cohort. Participants completed one in-person session and two weeks of at-home testing, with eight scheduled sessions, four in the morning and four in the afternoon. Participants also completed questionnaires and an interview about technology use and wore activity trackers to collect daily step and sleep data and answered questions about mood, anxiety, and fatigue throughout the two weeks of at-home data collection.Results:The participants completed an average of 11 at-home sessions, with the majority choosing to play extra sessions. Participants reported high usability ratings for all tasks and the majority rated the task difficulty as acceptable. On all mCAPP tasks, participant performance declined in accuracy and speed with increasing memory load and task complexity. mCAPP tasks correlated significantly with paper and pencil measures and several NIH Toolbox tasks (p<0.05). Examination of performance trends over multiple sessions indicates stabilization of performance within 4-6 sessions on memory mCAPP measures and 5-7 sessions on executive functioning mCAPP measures. Preliminary analyses indicate differences in mCAPP measures and imaging biomarkers.Conclusions:Participants were willing and able to complete at-home cognitive testing and most chose to complete more than the assigned sessions. Remote data collection is feasible and well-tolerated. We show preliminary construct validity with the UDS3 and NIH Toolbox and test-retest reliability following a period of task learning and performance improvement and stabilization. This work will help to advance remote detection and monitoring of early cognitive changes associated with preclinical AD. Future directions will include further evaluation of the relationships between mCAPP performance, behavioral states, and neuroimaging biomarkers as well as the utility of detection of practice effects in identifying longitudinal change and risk for ADRD-related cognitive decline.

Review of English L2 Vocabulary Learning and Teaching: Concepts, Principles, and Pedagogy

Vocabulary knowledge is crucial for comprehending input and generating output. To date, vocabulary learning has been extensively researched regarding incidental vocabulary learning, the effect of various input modes and input enhancement techniques, yet more studies are needed to explore and discuss pedagogical implications. The monograph under review, authored by Lawrence J. Zwier and Frank Boers, bridges the gap between research and practice. The monograph elaborates on L2 vocabulary acquisition from theory development (Chapters 1 & 2), empirical studies (Chapters 3 & 4), curricular design (Chapters 5 to 7), and classroom practice (Chapters 8 to 11) respectively.

Incidental vocabulary learning from captioned video genres: vocabulary knowledge, comprehension, repetition, and working memory

The present study aims to examine incidental vocabulary learning from different genres of captioned videos while considering frequency, vocabulary knowledge, comprehension, and working memory. A total of 210 learners who learn English as a foreign language (EFL) were assigned to 6 treatment conditions that differed in terms of video genres (comedy, education, and documentary) and the number of times they watched the same video (once and twice), as well as a control group that only took the tests. The participants took a vocabulary test measuring form recognition, meaning recognition, and recall before watching the video, immediately afterward, and 2 weeks after watching it. A content comprehension test was also administered. The results support the role of different video genres in incidental vocabulary learning. In particular, the findings favored the comedy genre. Repetition, i.e. repeated viewing, was found to be significant only for incidental vocabulary learning in the immediate form recognition test. Complex working memory was found to be significant only for incidental vocabulary learning in delayed meaning recognition and recall. The breadth of vocabulary knowledge and comprehension significantly impacted incidental vocabulary learning performance. Relevant implications based on the findings were provided.

The comparison of two incidental learning scenarios on a digital learning platform from the cognitive load perspective

The comparison of two incidental learning scenarios on a digital learning platform from the cognitive load perspective

Word number, level, and frequency in current English course books: Corpus study

Introducing the right English words in an adequate number and levels to beginner EFL learners is of paramount importance to enable them to communicate and develop their English further. This corpus study is meant to investigate the number and levels of English words, and their frequency of occurrences in a set of three official English course books for Indonesian junior high school students of the seventh to ninth grades, published by The Indonesian Ministry of Culture and Education. The study was conducted by converting each of the three English books into MS Word documents, eliminating the non-English and very common loanwords, saving each course book in plain text, and processing the plain text using a word frequency analysis program. The results show the English course books contain (1) a sufficient number of English words for comprehension of simplified pictured texts but not for authentic texts, (2) the high-frequency words that belong to the first, second thousand, and academic words, each of which is in an inadequate number, and (3) the frequency of word occurrences in the three books that is unlikely to lead to incidental word learning if no further efforts are made by the students and teachers.