Incidental Learning Research Articles

The Effects of Repetition on Incidental Vocabulary Learning: A Meta‐Analysis of Correlational Studies

This meta‐analysis aimed to clarify the complex relationship between repetition and second language (L2) incidental vocabulary learning by meta‐analyzing primary studies reporting correlation coefficients between the number of encounters and vocabulary learning. We synthesized and quantitatively analyzed 45 effect sizes from 26 studies (N = 1,918) to calculate the mean effect size of the frequency–learning relationship and to explore the extent to which 10 empirically motivated variables moderate this relationship. Results showed that there was a medium effect (r = .34) of repetition on incidental vocabulary learning. Subsequent moderator analyses revealed that variability in the size of repetition effects across studies was explained by learner variables (age, vocabulary knowledge), treatment variables (spaced learning, visual support, engagement, range in number of encounters), and methodological differences (nonword use, forewarning of an upcoming comprehension test, vocabulary test format). Based on the findings, we suggest future directions for L2 incidental vocabulary learning research.Open PracticesThis article has been awarded an Open Data badge. All data are publicly accessible via the Open Science Framework at https://osf.io/rmnk2. Learn more about the Open Practices badges from the Center for Open Science: https://osf.io/tvyxz/wiki.

Adaptive memory: longevity and learning intentionality of the animacy effect

ABSTRACTThe animacy effect—the finding that animates are better remembered than inanimates—is proving to be a robust empirical phenomenon. Considering the adaptiveness of the animate advantage, one might expect it to remain after long retention intervals and also to be present irrespectively of an intention to learn. The present study explores these two aspects. Different groups of participants learned (intentional learning) or rated the pleasantness (incidental learning) of animate and inanimate words; memory was tested immediately or after a 48 h delay. A significant animacy effect was obtained after both retention intervals and in both learning conditions. Two significant interactions revealed a larger animacy effect, as well as a larger effect of the retention interval, when learning was incidental. Our findings reinforce the robustness of the animacy effect and provide some insight into possible proximate mechanisms of the effect.

Cross-validation of incidental learning tasks from the WAIS-IV as a measure of memory

Although incidental learning (IL) routinely occurs in everyday life, it is infrequently assessed during neuropsychological evaluations. This study aimed to further examine the concurrent validity of IL measures based on the Vocabulary and Similarities subtests from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). Participants included 43 Veterans referred for outpatient neuropsychological testing. Performances on the IL procedures correlated strongly with performances on the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status Immediate and Delayed Recall Indices (r = .48 to r = .78). These results indicate that the IL procedures from selected WAIS-IV subtests provided an efficient and valid measure of memory. In particular, the task based on the Similarities subtest provided exceptionally high value as a screen for memory problems. These IL procedures, which require minimal additional administration time, capitalize on the semantic encoding that is inherent in completing the Vocabulary and Similarities subtests, and offer a complementary approach to standard memory assessment.

English vocabulary exposure in South African township schools: Pitfalls and opportunities

Background: This small-scale study investigated English vocabulary exposure from graded readers and teacher talk in Grade 3 classrooms in poorly resourced township schools in South Africa. Vocabulary is one of the key building blocks for becoming a fluent reader. Most words are learnt through incidental exposure to oral or written language. Objectives: This study is a first attempt to investigate opportunities for incidental vocabulary exposure in poorly resourced classrooms in South Africa. Method: A corpus linguistics approach was used to analyse a written corpus of 57 143 tokens and a spoken corpus of 12 242 tokens. Results: The study showed that there are vast differences between levels of written and spoken vocabulary in the classrooms and that the role for oral vocabulary exposure in classrooms is restricted. Spoken vocabulary registered above the K-3 word frequency level largely came from teachers’ read alouds of print materials. Conclusion: The study findings show that even in contexts where print exposure is limited, oral language cannot compensate for the richness of written vocabulary. Situational constraints, such as lack of books, negatively influenced the effective use of graded readers. Opportunities for incidental vocabulary learning, as well as implications for policy and further research, are discussed.

Role of the striatum in incidental learning of sound categories

Humans are born as "universal listeners" without a bias toward any particular language. However, over the first year of life, infants' perception is shaped by learning native speech categories. Acoustically different sounds-such as the same word produced by different speakers-come to be treated as functionally equivalent. In natural environments, these categories often emerge incidentally without overt categorization or explicit feedback. However, the neural substrates of category learning have been investigated almost exclusively using overt categorization tasks with explicit feedback about categorization decisions. Here, we examined whether the striatum, previously implicated in category learning, contributes to incidental acquisition of sound categories. In the fMRI scanner, participants played a videogame in which sound category exemplars aligned with game actions and events, allowing sound categories to incidentally support successful game play. An experimental group heard nonspeech sound exemplars drawn from coherent category spaces, whereas a control group heard acoustically similar sounds drawn from a less structured space. Although the groups exhibited similar in-game performance, generalization of sound category learning and activation of the posterior striatum were significantly greater in the experimental than control group. Moreover, the experimental group showed brain-behavior relationships related to the generalization of all categories, while in the control group these relationships were restricted to the categories with structured sound distributions. Together, these results demonstrate that the striatum, through its interactions with the left superior temporal sulcus, contributes to incidental acquisition of sound category representations emerging from naturalistic learning environments.

Incidental learning of allocentric and egocentric strategies by both men and women in a dual-strategy virtual Morris Water Maze.

In studies of human navigation, an underlying assumption is that, by nature, navigators are proficient with and strongly biased toward using only one strategy, either allocentric (cognitive mapping) or egocentric (stimulus-response based). Further, research often suggests that males are allocentric navigators whereas females are egocentric navigators. We tested these binary assumptions using two versions of a virtual Morris water maze (MWM). The Dual-strategy maze could be solved using either an allocentric or an egocentric strategy. Preferred strategy was tested by alternating test and probe trials. Two "Forced-strategy" probe trials tested navigators' ability to use their non-preferred strategy. Participants then completed the Place maze that was best solved using an allocentric strategy. In the Dual-strategy maze, there was no particular order of acquisition of a preferred strategy and a quarter of participants switched strategies; this switching was bilateral (from egocentric to allocentric and vice-versa). Navigators were most competent in the use of their preferred strategy. Importantly, navigators did learn (incidentally) information related to their non-preferred strategy and were capable of using that strategy. This pattern of results was shown for both males and females, although females did show a stronger preference for egocentric navigation than did males. We concluded that navigators can use all environmental information available to them and that the tendency to view people as innately allocentric or egocentric navigators does not allow for more nuanced investigations of navigational ability. Such investigations would better inform research into deficits in spatial ability in clinical populations.

Vocabulary learning through listening: Comparing L2 explanations, teacher codeswitching, contrastive focus-on-form and incidental learning

This study explored the teaching and learning of vocabulary through listening among 137 senior high-school learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) in China. It compared different types of Lexical Focus-on-Form delivered to four treatment groups: post-listening vocabulary explanations in the L2; codeswitched explanations; explanations providing additional crosslinguistic information (Contrastive Focus-on-Form; CFoF); and no explanations (NE). It also investigated the impact of the intervention on learners’ listening comprehension. Learners completed aural vocabulary tests at pre-, post- and delayed post-test and listening assessments at pre- and post-test. For short- and long-term vocabulary acquisition, the three groups receiving explanations significantly outperformed the NE group. Gains for the CFoF group were significantly greater than for the L2 and Codeswitching groups, for both short-term and long-term learning. For listening comprehension, only the NE group made significant improvement from the pre-test to the post-test, as well as making significantly greater pre- to post-test improvement than the CFoF and the L2 groups did. The article concludes by discussing these findings in relation to theories of vocabulary acquisition and listening comprehension, as well as their pedagogical implications.

Pupillary responses and reaction times index different cognitive processes in a combined Go/Switch incidental learning task

In previous studies we have provided evidence that performance in speeded response tasks with infrequent target stimuli reflects both automatic and controlled cognitive processes, based on differences in reaction time (RT) and task-related brain responses (Cheyne et al. 2012, Isabella et al. 2015). Here we test the hypothesis that such shifts in cognitive control may be influenced by changes in cognitive load related to stimulus predictability, and that these changes can be indexed by task-evoked pupillary responses (TEPR). We manipulated stimulus predictability using fixed stimulus sequences that were unknown to the participants in a Go/Switch task (requiring a switch response on 25% of trials) while monitoring TEPR as a measure of cognitive load in 12 healthy adults. Results showed significant improvement in performance (reduced RT, increased efficiency) for repeated sequences compared to occasional deviant sequences (10% probability) indicating that incidental learning of the predictable sequences facilitated performance. All behavioral measures varied between Switch and Go trials (RT, efficiency), however mean TEPR amplitude (mTEPR) and latency to maximum pupil dilation were particularly sensitive to Go/Switch. Results were consistent with the hypothesis that mTEPR indexes cognitive load, whereas TEPR latency indexes time to response selection, independent from response execution. The present study provides evidence that incidental pattern learning during response inhibition tasks may modulate several cognitive processes including cognitive load, effort, response selection and execution, which can in turn have differential effects on measures of performance. In particular, we demonstrate that reaction time may not be indicative of underlying cognitive load.

Behaviors and Strategies Supporting Everyday Memory in Older Adults

Background: Little is known about the means by which older adults achieve memory-demanding goals in everyday life or alternatively about why they fail to do so. Objectives: We conducted qualitative interviews to evaluate what older people do to support everyday memory functioning. A principal focus was on understanding the ways in which individuals use internal memory strategies and external memory aids. Methods: We interviewed 25 community-dwelling older adults (mean age 70 years) in a semi-structured interview. The transcribed results were coded by extracting segments of the interviews and classifying the responses into emergent categories. All coded interview segments were reviewed by category. Memos were created and relevant themes identified. Results: The older adults reported everyday memory failures (such as forgetting names), often without nominating explicit methods for avoiding these problems. They also reported using a number of external memory aids such as calendars and lists. Our interviews indicated this use was typically a part of complex routines and habits of living that often seemed vulnerable to errors. For instance, people would report filling medication organizers or completing to-do lists without mentioning plans for how to effectively use these aids later. Furthermore, they often reported reliance on spontaneous encoding and retrieval – for example, stating that they would routinely remember to perform important actions in the future. Conclusions: Older adults’ reported everyday memory failures were linked to suboptimal use of external memory aids and to a reliance on incidental learning and remembering. There is potential value for interventions that improve procedures for managing everyday life goals that rely on memory.

Which Matters More in Incidental Category Learning: Edge-Based Versus Surface-Based Features

Although many researches have shown that edge-based information is more important than surface-based information in object recognition, it remains unclear whether edge-based features play a more crucial role than surface-based features in category learning. To address this issue, a modified prototype distortion task was adopted in the present study, in which each category was defined by a rule or a similarity about either the edge-based features (i.e., contours or shapes) or the corresponding surface-based features (i.e., color and textures). The results of Experiments 1 and 2 showed that when the category was defined by a rule, the performance was significantly better in the edge-based condition than in the surface-based condition in the testing phase, and increasing the defined dimensions enhanced rather than reduced performance in the edge-based condition but not in the surface-based condition. The results of Experiment 3 showed that when each category was defined by a similarity, there was also a larger learning effect when the category was defined by edge-based dimensions than by surface-based dimensions in the testing phase. The current study is the first to provide convergent evidence that the edge-based information matters more than surface-based information in incidental category learning.

The Neural Representational Space of Social Memory.

Social functioning involves learning about the social networks in which we live and interact; knowing not just our friends, but also who is friends with our friends. This study utilized an incidental learning paradigm and representational similarity analysis (RSA), a functional MRI multivariate pattern analysis technique, to examine the relationship between learning social networks and the brain’s response to the faces within the networks. We found that accuracy of learning face pair relationships through observation is correlated with neural similarity patterns to those pairs in the left temporoparietal junction (TPJ), the left fusiform gyrus, and the subcallosal ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), all areas previously implicated in social cognition. This model was also significant in portions of the cerebellum and thalamus. These results show that the similarity of neural patterns represent how accurately we understand the closeness of any two faces within a network. Our findings indicate that these areas of the brain not only process knowledge and understanding of others, but also support learning relations between individuals in groups.

Incidental covariation learning leading to strategy change.

As they approach a traffic light, drivers and pedestrians monitor the color (instructed stimulus feature) and/or the position of the signal (covarying stimulus feature) for response selection. Many studies have pointed out that instructions can effectively determine the stimulus features used for response selection in a task. This leaves open whether and how practice with a correlating alternative stimulus feature can lead to a strategy change from an instructed to a learned variant of performing the task. To address this question, we instructed participants to respond to the position of a stimulus within a reference frame, at the same time, during task performance, an unmentioned second stimulus feature, the color, covaried with stimulus position and allowed the use of an alternative response strategy. To assess the impact of the non-instructed stimulus feature of color on response selection throughout practice, the spatial position of the stimulus was ambiguous on some trials. Group average increases in color usage were based on a mixture of (1) participants who, despite extended practice on the covariation, exclusively relied on the instructed stimulus feature and (2) those who abruptly started to rely heavily on stimulus color to select responses in ambiguous trials. When the instructed and uninstructed feature predicted different actions, choices were still biased by the uninstructed color feature, albeit more weakly. A second experiment showed that the influence of color generalized across frequently and infrequently presented combinations of position and color. Strategy changes were accompanied by awareness in both experiments. The results suggest that incidental covariation learning can trigger spontaneous voluntary strategy change involving a re-configuration of the instructed task set.

The Development of Implicit and Explicit Knowledge of Collocations: A Conceptual Replication and Extension of Sonbul and Schmitt (2013)

Sonbul and Schmitt (2013) showed that exposure to second language (L2) collocations in reading texts can produce gains in explicit knowledge, but they found no evidence of gains in implicit knowledge. This study is a conceptual replication and extension of Sonbul and Schmitt's research. Sixty‐two advanced English as a second language (ESL) speakers read texts containing repeated occurrences of low‐frequency medical collocations in three sessions over 2 days. The incidental learning treatments included reading only (no typographic enhancement), bolding, and bolding‐plus‐glossing. Collocational knowledge was assessed in tests of explicit knowledge (cued recall, form recognition) and a test of implicit knowledge (primed lexical decision). Repeated exposure to bolded collocations produced greater explicit knowledge than repeated exposure to typographically unenhanced collocations. Evidence of implicit knowledge development was observed in the unenhanced (reading only) treatment but not in the remaining treatments. These results replicated Sonbul and Schmitt's findings for explicit knowledge and extended their findings for implicit knowledge.Open PracticesThis article has been awarded an Open Materials badge. All materials are publicly accessible via the Open Science Framework at https://osf.io/qy2c3. Learn more about the Open Practices badges from the Center for Open Science: https://osf.io/tvyxz/wiki.

The Interplay Between Multisensory Associative Learning and IQ in Children.

This study assessed the developmental profile of unisensory and multisensory processes, and their contribution to children's intellectual abilities (8- and 11-year olds, N=38, compared to adults, N=19) using a simple audiovisual detection task and three incidental associative learning tasks with different sensory signals: visual-verbal with pseudowords, novel audiovisual, and visual-visual. The level of immaturity throughout childhood was dependent on both, the sensory signal type and the task. Associative learning was significantly enhanced with verbal sounds, compared to novel audiovisual and unisensory visual learning. Visual-verbal learning was also the best predictor of children's general intellectual abilities. The results demonstrate a separate developmental trajectory for visual and verbal multisensory processes and independent contributions to the development of cognitive abilities throughout childhood.

Spatial updating deficits in human aging are associated with traces of former memory representations

The ability to update spatial memories is important for everyday situations, such as remembering where we left our keys or parked our car. Although rodent studies have suggested that old age might impair spatial updating, direct evidence for such a deficit in humans is missing. Here, we tested whether spatial updating deficits occur in human aging, whether the learning mode influences spatial updating, and what mnemonic mechanism underlies the presumed deficits. To address these questions, younger and older participants had to indicate the latest location of relocated items, following either incidental or intentional learning. Using eye tracking, we further quantified memory traces of the original and updated locations. We found that older participants were selectively impaired in recalling locations of relocated items. Furthermore, they depicted relatively stronger representations of the original locations, which were correlated with their spatial updating deficits. The findings demonstrate that stronger representations of former spatial contexts can impair spatial updating in aging, a mechanism that can help explain the commonly observed age-related decline in spatial memory.

The effects of word frequency and typographical enhancement on incidental vocabulary learning in reading

ABSTRACTThis study examines the effects of word frequency and typographical enhancement (i.e., words in bold) on the learning of single words in Spanish L2 reading activities in a classroom setting. Learners read a text in which target words appearing in bold occurred one, five or 10 times. A parallel text was also provided in which those same words appeared un-bolded. Students were tested three times on both spelling and meaning of the target words: before, immediately after and two weeks after the reading activity. Results show that: (1) after five or 10 encounters, both spelling and meaning recognition skills increase; (2) words appearing in bold only lead to learning gains at a form recognition level immediately after the test is taken and do not contribute to the acquisition of meaning in the post-test; and (3) there is no interaction between typographical enhancement and frequency.

Cue Competition and Incidental Learning: No Blocking or Overshadowing in the Colour-Word Contingency Learning Procedure Without Instructions to Learn

Overshadowing and blocking are two important findings that are frequently used to constrain models of associative learning. Overshadowing is the finding that learning about a cue (referred to as X) is reduced when that cue is always accompanied by a second cue (referred to as A) during the learning phase (AX). Blocking is the finding that after learning a stimulus-outcome relation for one stimulus (A), learning about a second stimulus (X) is reduced when the second stimulus is always accompanied by the first stimulus (AX). It remains unclear whether overshadowing and blocking result from explicit decision processes (e.g., “I know that A predicts the outcome, so I am not sure whether X does, too”), or whether cue competition is built directly into low-level association formation processes. In that vein, the present work examined whether overshadowing and/or blocking are present in an incidental learning procedure, where the predictive stimuli (words or shapes) are irrelevant to the cover task and merely correlated with the task-relevant stimulus dimension (colour). In two large online studies, we observed no evidence for overshadowing or blocking in this setup: (a) no evidence for an overshadowing cost was observed with compound (word-shape) cues relative to single cue learning conditions, and (b) contingency learning effects for blocked stimuli did not differ from those for blocking stimuli. However, when participants were given the explicit instructions to learn contingencies, evidence for blocking and overshadowing was observed. Together, these results suggest that contingencies of blocked/overshadowed stimuli are learned incidentally, but are suppressed by explicit decision processes due to knowledge of the contingencies for the blocking/overshadowing stimuli.

The Effect of Repetition on Incidental Legal Vocabulary Learning Through Long-Term Exposure to Authentic Videos

The Effect of Repetition on Incidental Legal Vocabulary Learning Through Long-Term Exposure to Authentic Videos

Learning of Pseudowords by Children of Different Ages in a Shared Book Reading Context

Abstract Shared book reading favors incidental learning of vocabulary; however, studies indicate that the previous vocabulary level of the child interferes with learning. The aim of this study was to compare the learning relations between pseudowords and figures of children aged 3 and 7 years in a shared book reading situation and to investigate the possible occurrence of the Matthew Effect. A book with four pseudowords developed for this study was read three consecutive times to 10 children of each age group. Matching-to-sample, exclusion, naming, and description of the use probes were applied immediately after the reading and one week later. No significant differences were found between the performances of both groups, except for the exclusion probes, without incidence of the Matthew Effect. Learning words is a continuous process that involves frequency and contexts of exposure to the words.

Incidental Vocabulary Learning through Watching Movies

It is thought that in order to comprehend general conversation at the native-speaker level, it is necessary to know thousands of word families. Vocabulary learning is therefore a vital component to attaining proficiency in a language. The revolution in digital and information technology has dramatically transformed the landscape of resources available to language students. Learners increasingly have access to audio-visual, meaning-focused input, such as DVDs and streamed video material. Studies indicate that such materials can be used as linguistic input to facilitate incidental vocabulary learning, in the same way extensive reading (ER) uses graded readers have traditionally been used for the same purpose. The current study sought to measure the effect of watching a single movie in English, with English captions, on the ability of Japanese students to recall a selection of words taken from the movie script. The results revealed a significant increase in students' ability to recall the words directly after watching the movie. From a list of 42 target words, the mean number of words recalled increased by 1.7 (4.05%) words after viewing. The result suggests that meaning-focused audio-visual input such as movies are a valuable supplementary resource for language learners, which can help provide a welcome boost their rate of vocabulary acquisition.