Incentive Value Research Articles

A modified behavioral test protocol for simultaneously evaluating the incentive value of alcohol drinking and social interaction in mice

Individual sociability and alcohol drinking are interacted to escalate alcohol use. An impairment in perceiving and discriminating the difference in incentive values between social interaction and drinking behavior indicates a shift from moderate alcohol consumption to misuse. However, few studies have evaluated the incentive value of these two behaviors in the same scenario. Thus, we modified a behavioral test protocol to evaluate rodents’ ability to perceive and discriminate the differences in incentive value between alcohol drinking and interaction with their social partners. The present protocol is simple and practicable. Only 2–3 days are required to complete the whole process. Compared with existing methods, our protocol is simple and practicable. Our findings suggested that subtle changes in the incentive value of distinct behaviors can be accurately and reliably assessed using the present protocol in mice with low or high levels of alcohol preference.•We described a modified behavioral test protocol to simultaneously evaluate the incentive value of alcohol drinking and social interaction.•The subtle changes in the incentive value of mice with different levels of alcohol preference can be accurately and reliably assessed in the present protocol.•Using our modified protocol, the differences of incentive value between distinct behaviors can be accurately and reliably assessed in mice with different risks to develop into AUD.

Biological sex influences the contribution of sign-tracking and anxiety-like behavior toward remifentanil self-administration.

Most people sample addictive drugs, but use becomes disordered in only a small minority. Two important factors that influence susceptibility to addiction are individual differences in personality traits and biological sex. The influence of traits on addiction-like behavior is well-characterized in preclinical models of cocaine self-administration, but less is understood in regards to opioids. How biological sex influences trait susceptibility to opioid self-administration is likewise less studied than psychostimulants. Thus, we sought to elucidate how biological sex and several addiction-relevant traits interact with the propensity to self-administer the opioid remifentanil. We first screened female (n = 19) and male (n = 19) rats for four addiction-relevant traits: impulsivity, novelty place-preference, anxiety-like behavior, and attribution of incentive value to reward cues. Rats were then trained to self-administer remifentanil in a "conflict model" of drug self-administration. Rats had to endure an electric shock to access the response manipulandum that triggered an intravenous infusion of remifentanil. In male rats, high anxiety-like behavior was positively correlated with the number of drug infusions if the shock level was low or completely absent. In females, sign-tracking was predictive of greater resistance to punishment during drug seeking; an effect that was mediated by anxiety-like behavior. Females consumed more remifentanil under all conditions, and their drug seeking persisted in the face of significantly greater current than males. These findings demonstrate that the influence of behavioral traits over the propensity to self-administer opioids is dependent upon biological sex. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The effect of incentivization on the conjunction fallacy in judgments: a meta-analysis.

The conjunction fallacy is a classical judgment bias that was argued to be a robust cognitive illusion insensitive to the positive effect of incentivization. We conducted a meta-analysis of the literature (n = 3276) and found that although most studies did not report a significant effect of incentivization, the results across studies show a significant positive effect for incentivization, d = 0.19, with an odds ratio of 1.40 for answering correctly when incentivized. There was no moderating effect of payoff size despite the differences in incentive value between studies. Additionally, the effect was relatively smaller when examining absolute differences in the probability of correct judgment instead of odds ratios, suggesting that it may be partly driven by studies with low baseline performance. These findings join those of other judgment-bias studies to suggest a small but nevertheless robust debiasing effect of incentivization.

"A Band-Aid Solution": Policy Maker and Primary Care Provider Perspectives on the Value of Attachment Incentives.

Approximately 15% of Canadians are without a primary care provider ("unattached"). To address "unattachment," several provinces introduced a financial incentive for family physicians who attach new patients. A descriptive qualitative approach was used to explore perspectives of patient access and attachment to primary care. Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with family physicians, nurse practitioners and policy makers in Nova Scotia. Thematic analysis was performed to identify participant perspectives on the value and efficacy of financial incentives to promote patient attachment. Three themes were identified: (1) positive impacts of the incentive, (2) shortcomings of the incentive and (3) alternative strategies to strengthen primary healthcare. Participants felt that attachment incentives may offer short-term solutions to patient unattachment; however, financial incentives cannot overcome systemic challenges. Participants recommended alternative policy levers to strengthen primary healthcare, including addressing the shortage of primary care providers and developing remuneration and practice models that support sustainable patient attachment.

Consumer Tax Credits for EVs: Some Quasi-Experimental Evidence on Consumer Demand, Product Substitution, and Carbon Emissions

Governments worldwide have spent billions of dollars on monetary incentives for consumers to encourage the adoption of eco-friendly (“green”) products. However, there is little consensus on the effectiveness of delayed monetary incentives with complex structures, such as tax credits in increasing green product adoption and reducing carbon emissions. The literature is also limited on the mechanisms through which monetary incentives work in general. We address these issues by studying the impact of tax credit incentives on green and nongreen vehicle sales in the U.S. auto industry. A tax credit incentive could boost green vehicle sales through cost savings on the vehicle’s price. However, the incentive may prove ineffective because of important barriers to adoption (e.g., long charging times for electric cars). To measure the sales and emissions impacts of tax credits, we study incentive changes in South Carolina and Oregon via various quasi-experimental approaches and assess the generalizability of our key findings to Colorado. Unlike recent studies showing an insignificant or negative correlation between tax credits and electric vehicle adoption, our analyses show that unit sales of incentivized plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) increase by an average of 3.7% (up to 52.7% in some counties) following a $2,000 incentive. In contrast, PHEV sales remain unchanged after the incentive’s termination, implying a positive net sales effect. We also explore the underlying mechanisms for the incentive’s impact by examining various purchase funnel stages. In the awareness stage, the incentive’s positive effect on PHEV demand peaks around the consumers’ tax-filing period. As for the consideration stage, our analyses of online consumer search indicate that the incentive does not expand the consumer pool considering PHEVs. In the conversion stage, the incentive generates more sales for PHEVs in counties where (i) consumers are more likely to have PHEVs in their consideration sets regardless of the incentive (i.e., Democratic counties) and (ii) consumers value cost-saving more (i.e., counties with lower middle income). Also, the heightened demand for PHEVs following the incentive stems from the substitution from gasoline vehicles with high fuel efficiency. We estimate the average cost of reducing carbon emissions through tax credits to be $109 per ton, which is less expensive than tax rebates for conventional hybrids and subsidies for residential solar panels. This paper was accepted by David Simchi-Levi, Special Section of Management Science on Business and Climate Change. Supplemental Material: The online appendix and data are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4781 .

Interaction of nicotine and social reward in group-reared male adolescent rats

Adolescents exhibit great sensitivity to nicotine and social interaction; accordingly, when both stimuli are presented together, they interact to enhance the incentive value of the context in which they occur. Noteworthy, most studies assessing the interaction between nicotine and social reward have used isolated-reared rats. Adolescent isolation is an adverse condition that impacts brain development and behavior, so it is not known if the interaction also occurs in rats without social deprivation. The present study used a conditioned place preference model (CPP) to examine the interaction between nicotine and social reward in group-reared male adolescent rats. At weaning, Wistar rats were randomly assigned to four groups: vehicle, vehicle and a social partner, nicotine (0.1 mg/Kg s.c.), and nicotine and a social partner. Conditioning trials occurred on eight consecutive days followed by a test session in which the preference change was assessed. Besides the establishment of CPP, we examined the effects of nicotine on (1) social behaviors during CPP trials and (2) tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and oxytocin (OT) as markers of changes in the neuronal mechanisms for reward and social affiliation. Similar to previous results, the joint presentation of nicotine and social reward induced CPP, whereas either nicotine or social interaction presented alone did not. This finding coincided with an increase in TH levels observed after nicotine administration only in socially conditioned rats. The interaction between nicotine and social reward is not related to the effects of nicotine on social investigation or social play.

Incentive mechanism-based interval-valued q-rung orthopair fuzzy dynamic comprehensive evaluation method for measuring regional green development level

Interval-valued q-rung orthopair fuzzy number (IVq-ROFN) is a popular tool for modeling complex uncertain information and has gained successful applications in the field of comprehensive evaluation. However, most of the existing studies are based on the absolute values of evaluation data but fail to take incentive effects into account. Reasonable and appropriate incentive can guide the evaluated objects to better achieve the decision goals. Therefore, this study develops an incentive mechanism-based interval-valued q-rung orthopair fuzzy dynamic comprehensive evaluation method. Firstly, new interval-valued q-rung orthopair fuzzy measures including deviation measure and correlation coefficient are proposed for managing IVq-ROFNs data. To overcome the limitations of the existing aggregating operators that are not suitable for scenarios with need of many times of data aggregation, we introduce two new interval-valued q-rung orthopair fuzzy aggregating operators. Furthermore, a new interval-valued orthopair fuzzy CRITIC method is developed to objectively determine the importance of the evaluated criteria. More importantly, the horizontal incentive effects within a single period and the vertical incentive effects during multiple periods under IVq-ROFNs environments are proposed to reward (or punish) the evaluated objects in the evaluation process. The evaluated results are determined based on the full compensatory model and the multiplicative form model. The main advantage of the developed method is that the expectations of decision-makers and the dynamic characteristics during multiple periods are taken fully into account, which can make the evaluation results more reasonable and reliable. Finally, this developed comprehensive evaluation method is applied to evaluate the green development level of Jiangxi province within eleven cities from 2016 to 2020. We observe that the cities x2, x3, x4, x5, x7, x8 are rewarded within positive incentive values and the cities x1, x6, x9, x10, x11 are punished within negative incentive values. Especially, the positive incentive value for the city x3 is the biggest and the negative incentive value for the city x9 is the biggest. The best city in term of GDL is x3. The evaluated results with consideration of incentive effects are in line with the expectation of the decision-maker.

Economic Valuation of Sentul Chicken in the Framework of Providing Incentives and Sustainability of Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) in Ciamis District, West Java

The purpose of this study was to examine the economic valuation of Sentul chicken to determine the amount of incentive farmers should receive. A survey method has been conducted as the research methodology. The research location was determined purposively, namely in accordance with the research objectives, on the basis of several considerations, the location where the research was located was the Sentul chicken development center where there were active farmer groups. A total of 39 farmers who had a minimum of 100 Sentul chickens/year were censused to become respondents. Data collection was carried out in May - August 2022. The data were analyzed by the contingent valuation method (CVM) using the willingness to accept (WTA) approach in the bidding game. The WTA value sought is the Total WTA (TWTA) and Mean WTA (EWTA) which are converted into incentive values for farmers. Multiple regression analysis has been applied to investigate any significant factors that affected the WTA value. The study results show an estimated total WTA value of IDR 191,220,000 per year and an estimated WTA value of IDR 178,974.36 per chicken per year. Education, experience, land area, income, livestock orientation, and pride are WTA factors that impact farmers, as income (0,024) and pride (0,000) become the most influential factors. Efforts to conserve Sentul chickens can be realized using the incentives indicated by a high WTA value. Therefore, policy makers can conserve Sentul chickens using an incentive approach.

Conditioned approach behavior of SHR and SD rats during Pavlovian conditioning

Individual differences in reward-related learning are relevant to many behavioral disorders. Sensory cues that predict reward can become incentive stimuli that adaptively support behavior, or alternatively, cause maladaptive behaviors. The spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) expresses a genetically determined elevated sensitivity to delay of reward, and has been extensively studied as a behavioral model for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We investigated reward-related learning in the SHR, comparing them to Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats as a reference strain. A standard Pavlovian conditioned approach task was used, in which a lever cue was followed by reward. Lever presses could occur while the lever was extended, but had no effect on reward delivery. The behavior of both the SHRs and the SD rats showed that they learnt that the lever cue predicted reward. However, the pattern of behavior differed between the strains. During lever cue presentation, SD rats pressed the lever more often and made fewer magazine entries than SHRs. When lever contacts that did not result in lever presses were analyzed, there was no significant difference between SHRs and SDs. These results suggest that the SHRs attributed less incentive value to the conditioned stimulus than the SD rats. During the presentation of the conditioned cue, cue directed responses are called sign tracking responses, whereas responses directed towards the food magazine are called goal tracking responses. Analysis of behavior using a standard Pavlovian conditioned approach index to quantify sign and goal tracking tendencies showed that both strains had a tendency towards goal tracking in this task. However, the SHRs showed a significantly greater goal tracking tendency than the SD rats. Taken together, these findings suggest that attribution of incentive value to reward predicting cues is attenuated in SHRs, which might explain their elevated sensitivity to delay of reward.

Post-weaning social isolation increases the incentive value of nicotine-related contexts and decreases the accumulation of ΔFosB in nucleus accumbens in adolescent rats

Adolescent social conditions profoundly affect vulnerability to drug abuse. Preclinical studies have shown that preventing social interactions during adolescence increases the rewarding effects of drugs like alcohol, cocaine, or amphetamines, however, little data exist regarding the impact of social isolation on nicotine effects. The current study evaluated the effects of differential rearing conditions during adolescence (isolation or group rearing) on (1) conditioned place preference induced by low nicotine doses (0.1 or 0.3 mg/kg) and (2) sensitization to the locomotor effects of nicotine after sub-chronic administration (3) and accumulation of ΔFosB in nucleus accumbens (NAc). Results showed that nicotine induced place preference in isolated and grouped rats, but the effect was more persistent for the rats reared in isolation. Isolated reared rats also exhibited lower levels of ΔFosB accumulation in NAc. No differences were found in the behavioral sensitization to nicotine effects between rearing conditions. The results suggest that isolation engenders a more robust incentive value of nicotine-related contexts. This effect could be related to the basal expression of ΔFosB: lower levels of this transcription factor seem to impair the motivation of isolated reared rats and increase their vulnerability to the effects of drugs like nicotine.

Microgrid system energy management with demand response program for clean and economical operation

A fundamental microgrid system's load demand often fluctuates hourly. Utilities establish different prices at various times based on the fluctuation of the load demand curve, this is referred to as electricity price based on time-of-use (TOU). The overall contribution of the paper is manifold which involves the techno-economic impacts of grid participation, electricity pricing and renewables. However, the primary goal is to offer a demand-response (DR) model that maximizes the benefits of energy retailers, in this case the microgrid customers. DR models examine the utility and elasticity of various customers, taking into account their different behaviors during both peak and valley periods. Considering that 40 % of the customers participate in the DR program, an exhaustive optimization process is initiated to calculate the optimal incentive value. Thereafter, a novel intelligent algorithm is implemented to minimize the overall cost of a microgrid system and analyze the outcome with and without DR program. The many cost factors taken into account include fuel costs, fined pollution costs, operating and maintenance costs, depreciation costs, etc. The use of a DR-based energy management microgrid system resulted in a significant decrease in overall generating costs from 880¥ to 872¥ along with pollutants released as compared to those described in the literature, according to numerical data. Furthermore, the peak demand was lowered by 5.13 % from 180 kW to 170.754 kW. The suggested optimization method is claimed to be superior by measures of central tendency analysis.

Ethical Considerations Regarding Financial Incentives in Plastic Surgery-Related Health Research.

Introduction: To recruit enough patients to achieve adequate statistical power in clinical research, investigators often rely on financial incentives. The use of these incentives, however, remains controversial as they may cause patients to overlook risks associated with research participation. This concern is amplified in the context of plastic surgery where aesthetic procedures are often more desirable and are not typically covered by public or private insurance plans. Despite this, the ethical debate regarding the use of incentives has largely been absent from plastic surgery journals; therefore, efforts to summarize the existing literature in the context of plastic surgery are necessary. Methods: A narrative review of the peer-reviewed published literature was performed to identify existing articles pertaining to financial incentives in plastic surgery-related health research. Results: While incentives have the potential to improve sample sizes and promote the recruitment of under-represented patient populations, undue inducement and biased recruitment are possible. At present, there exists a paucity of empirical evidence to substantiate this. Efforts should be taken by investigators and research ethics boards (REBs) to limit the potential negative impacts of monetary compensation. Investigators should place reasonable limits on the value of incentives as well as select models associated with lower risks of undue influence and enrollment bias. When financial remuneration is offered, additional care should be taken by investigators to ensure participants are adequately informed of the risks associated with research participation. Conclusion: Current best practice recommendations suggest that proposals submitted to REBs justify the incentives used. Information regarding incentives should also be included within study consent forms and communicated as part of the informed consent process.

Reinforcement Learning to Improve QoS and Minimizing Delay in IoT

Machine Learning concepts have raised executions in all knowledge domains, including the Internet of Thing (IoT) and several business domains. Quality of Service (QoS) has become an important problem in IoT surrounding since there is a vast explosion of connecting sensors, information and usage. Sensor data gathering is an efficient solution to collect information from spatially disseminated IoT nodes. Reinforcement Learning Mechanism to improve the QoS (RLMQ) and use a Mobile Sink (MS) to minimize the delay in the wireless IoT s proposed in this paper. Here, we use machine learning concepts like Reinforcement Learning (RL) to improve the QoS and energy efficiency in the Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). The MS collects the data from the Cluster Head (CH), and the RL incentive values select CH. The incentives value is computed by the QoS parameters such as minimum energy utilization, minimum bandwidth utilization, minimum hop count, and minimum time delay. The MS is used to collect the data from CH, thus minimizing the network delay. The sleep and awake scheduling is used for minimizing the CH dead in the WSN. This work is simulated, and the results show that the RLMQ scheme performs better than the baseline protocol. Results prove that RLMQ increased the residual energy, throughput and minimized the network delay in the WSN.

Evaluation of response to incentive recruitment strategies in a social media-based survey.

This study aimed to examine varying incentives on acceptance to participate in an online survey on social media and to identify related demographic factors. The study used Facebook and targeted its users aged 18 to 24 years in the United States. During recruitment, participants were randomized to one of the three types of incentives for survey completion, (1) a $5 gift card, (2) a lottery for a $200 gift card, and (3) a $5 gift card plus a lottery for a $200 gift card. Acceptance rates for survey participation were compared across three incentives using percentages, 95% logit-transformed confidence intervals, and Pearson's chi-squared tests. The survey asked about cognition and behaviors around smoking and vaping. The ads had 1,782,931 impressions, 1,104,139 reaches, and 11,878 clicks. The average ad frequency was 1.615, and the click-through rate was 0.67%. Males clicked less than females when seeing the ads. The acceptance rates for the three incentives were 63.7%, 37.2%, and 64.6%, respectively. A Chi-square test confirmed that the lottery-only group had a lower acceptance rate compared to those guaranteed an incentive, including the gift card group and the gift card and lottery group. Further analyses indicated that males did not opt into the survey as often as females when given the lottery-only incentive option, and those who did not meet their financial expenses opted into the survey more often than those who had more money than their expenses when given the lottery-only incentive option. This study suggests that incentives guaranteed to all participants, even if the incentive's value is small, may lead to higher acceptance rates compared to a lottery for a greater incentive in social media-based surveys.

Shame for money: Shame enhances the incentive value of economic resources – RETRACTION

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Identifying influential users in unknown social networks for adaptive incentive allocation under budget restriction

In recent years, recommenze the social influence among users to enhance the effect of incentivization. Through incentivizing influential users directly, their followers in the social network are possibly incentivized indirectly. However, in many real-world applications, identifying influential users can be challenging because of the unknown network topology. In this paper, we propose a novel algorithm for exploring influential users in unknown networks, estimating the influential relationships among users based on their historical behaviors without knowing the network topology. In addition, we design an adaptive incentive allocation approach that determines incentive values based on each user’s preferences and influence ability. We evaluate the performance of the proposed approaches by conducting experiments on synthetic and real-world datasets. The experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approaches.

Unwrapped: Readiness-to-eat in food images affects cravings

Studies investigating the cognitive, behavioural, and/or neurophysiological responses to food images have commonly observed stronger effects for palatable high calorie than low calorie foods. This has been attributed to the higher incentive value of high calorie foods which in turn triggers cravings and thus affects consumption. Yet, food cravings are not solely determined by intrinsic food properties, such as calorie contents, but also depend on extrinsic factors, such as the physical availability of food items. Here we argue that in many studies the images employed to represent high and low-calorie foods often also differ systematically in their depicted readiness-to-eat (i.e., amount of preparation required before consumption) - with low calorie images more frequently showing food in an unprepared state. Thus, we aimed to assess if readiness-to-eat in food images affects self-reported cravings; and therefore, potentially amplifies response differences between food categories unmatched in this aspect. Participants (N = 224) rated images of food matched in calorie density either shown in a ready-to-eat state or in a state requiring some further preparation (cooking, unpacking or peeling, slicing). Readiness-to-eat reliably affected participants’ cravings with higher cravings for ready-to-eat foods. Furthermore, a linear regression model revealed that the size of the effect was linked to participants’ current hunger levels. Based on these findings, we recommend that future studies interested in comparing the effects of certain intrinsic food properties on cravings, should ensure that stimuli are matched for their readiness-to-eat to avoid confounding effects. Practical implications on food advertising and promotion are also discussed.

The rostral medial frontal cortex is crucial for engagement in consummatory behavior.

The medial frontal cortex (MFC) in rodents emits rhythmic activity that is entrained to the animal's licking cycle during consumption and encodes the value of consumed fluids. These signals are especially prominent in the rostral half of the MFC. This region is located above an orbitofrontal region where mu-opioid receptors regulate intake and reversible inactivation reduces behavioral measures associated with the incentive value and palatability of liquid sucrose. Here, we examined the effects of reversible inactivation and stimulation of mu-opioid receptors in rostral MFC on behavior in an incentive contrast licking task. Adult male rats licked to receive access to liquid sucrose, which alternated between high (16%) and low (4%) values over 30 s periods. Bilateral infusion of muscimol reduced the total number of licks over the 30 min test sessions, the time spent actively consuming sucrose, and the ratio of licks for the higher and lower value fluids. Inactivation did not alter licking frequency or variability or microstructural measures such as the duration of licking bouts that are classically associated with the palatability of a liquid reward. Infusions of [d-Ala2, N-Me-Phe4, Gly5-ol]-enkephalin (DAMGO; 1 μg/μL) at the same sites had inconsistent behavioral effects across different subjects. Our findings suggest that the rostral MFC has a distinct role in the control of consummatory behavior and contributes to persistent consumption and not to the expression of palatability. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Escalating schedules of incentives increase physical activity with no differences between deposit and no-deposit groups: A systematic replication.

Physical inactivity has increasingly affected public health in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic as it is associated with chronic diseases such as arthritis, cancer, and heart disease. Contingency management has been shown to increase physical activity. Therefore, the present study sought to evaluate the effects of an escalating schedule of monetary reinforcement with a reset contingency on physical activity, as compared between 2 counterbalanced groups in which a monetary deposit of $25 was either required (deposit group) or not (no-deposit group). Twenty-five adults wore Fitbit accelerometers to monitor step counts. An ABA reversal design was used; in the 2 baseline phases, no programmed contingencies were in place for step counts. During intervention, step goals were set using a modified 70th percentile schedule with a 7-day window: Reaching the first goal would result in $0.25, and incentives increased by $0.25 for each subsequent day in which the goal was met. Failure to reach a goal resulted in a reset of the monetary incentive value to $0.25. Ten out of 12 participants from the deposit group were determined to be responders to intervention, whereas 8 out of 13 participants from the no-deposit group were determined to be responders to intervention. Overall, there were no significant differences between the groups' step counts. However, the deposit group's intervention was cheaper to implement, which suggests that deposit contracts are a viable modification for physical activity interventions.

Inquiry of the orbitofrontal cortex role in incentive learning: An artificial neural networks simulation

This study evaluates, through artificial neural network (NN) simulations, the roles of amygdala (AMG) and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in reversal learning as responsible for assigning and updating incentive values, respectively, by taking into account some of its physiological characteristics and its connections with mesolimbic system structures. An architecture was built which contained modules of nodes representing OFC, amygdala (AMG), ventral tegmental area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens (NACC). Simulations were based on experimental responses of rats during a discrimination and reversal learning task in a T-maze. During simulations, intact NN responded similar to control rats. OFC showed retarded encoding in afferent connections as comparing with AMG nodes and an increase in the recruitment of neural nodes during reversal tasks. Activity of neural nodes plausibly emulates reinforcer preference during discriminations and reversals in AMG, COF and NACC. All these findings were disrupted by OFC’s inactivation. NN with OFC nodes inactivated (RN), just like rats with OFC inactivated, achieved discrimination learning although its reversal was impaired. As with rats, perseveration of incorrect responses was not found because subjects stop responding after a few incorrect trials. These findings are in accordance with the hypotheses of AMG as key in encoding novel predicting-outcome cues and OFC as critical for incentive value updating and the crucial role this prefrontal region plays for correct performance in discrimination tasks.