Burseraceae Research Articles

Computational insight to putative anti-acetylcholinesterase activity of Commiphora myrrha (Nees), Engler, Burseraceae: a lessen of archaeopharmacology from Mesopotamian Medicine I.

Commiphora spp., Burseraceae family and their resinous matter, myrrh, are used in Mesopotamian medicine as fragrance or antiinsectant. Based on in vitro, leaves, bark, and resin methyl alcohol extract of C. myrrha showed similar inhibitory effects of 17.00, 26.00, and 29.33% for acetylcholinesterase (AChE) as compared to eserine, respectively. The ADMET properties and putative anticholinesterase activity of phytochemicals of myrrh were computationally predicted using in silico tools. Phytochemicals of C. myrrha had acceptable binding affinity (BA) towards principal sites of AChE ranging from - 5.8 (m-cresol) to - 10.5 (abietic acid) kcal/mol. In this regard, all terpenoid compounds (25 out of 28) of myrrh were dual inhibitors since they hydrophobically interacted with both catalytic triad and peripheral anionic site (PAS) of AChE while alpha-terpineol, elemol, and eugenol employed hydrogen bonds with AChE. Cuscohygrine as a pyrrolidine alkaloid has been docked with AChE through hydrogen bonds with PAS and through hydrophobic interactions with catalytic triad thereby we initially proposed it as dual inhibitor of AChE. M-cresol as a methylphenol has been loosely docked with AChE via hydrogen bond and would be a hit molecule for further drug synthesis. This study not only confirmed archaeopharmacological applications of myrrh as antiinsectant or nootropics but also offered an array of terpenoid compounds, cuscohygrine, and m-cresol as a good starting point for hit-to-lead-to-drug optimization phase in synthesis of phyto-nootropics and ecofriendly insecticides.

Boswellic Acid Composition of Frankincense Dietary Supplements and Correlation to Cytotoxic Efficacy against Treatment‐Resistant Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Frankincense is an oleogum resin from Boswellia trees of the Burseraceae family. The oleogum resin contains 15–20 % triterpenic acids, including therapeutically active boswellic acids [1]. Extracts of oleogum resins obtained from Boswellia serrata have been traditionally used in Indian folk medicine (Ayurveda) for the treatment of various chronic inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Furthermore, boswellic acids are known to possess anticancer efficacy against various human cancer types, e.g. gliomas, prostate cancer, or leukemia [2–4]. The aim of the present study was to analyze the contents of boswellic acids in dietary supplements from various Boswellia species grown in different areas and to correlate the concentrations of distinct boswellic acids to the extracts' cytotoxic efficacy against chemoresistant triple‐negative human breast cancer cells. Accordingly, a new method to quantify a large variety of pentacyclic triterpenic acids was developed. Dietary supplements from various Boswellia species Boswellia serrata, Boswellia sacra, Boswellia carterii, and others were extracted with methanol and analyzed by high performance reversed‐phase liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometric detection (HPLC‐MS/MS). Besides, the effects of the extracts against the treatment‐resistant, triple negative human breast cancer cell line MDA‐MB‐231 were investigated in vitro by using a cell viability assay. The extracts exhibited potent cytotoxic activity against the human breast cancer cell line. Correlations between the boswellic acid contents and the cytotoxic efficacy were determined by multiple linear regression and principal component regression. This approach allowed not only the correlation of complex phytochemical mixtures to desired biomedical effects, but it likewise provided evidence for key compounds governing the therapeutic efficacy. Hence, the study provides new insights into differential chemical composition patterns of frankincense dietary supplements from Boswellia species grown in different regions. Besides, the study identified distinct components correlating positively with the desired cytotoxic activity. Thus, the identified key compounds deserve further studies either as chemically pure substances or as defined chemical mixtures permitting development of the most active ingredients as potential anticancer drug candidates.Support or Funding InformationThis work was supported by the Academic Center for Complementary and Integrative Medicine (AZKIM), State Ministry of Baden‐Württemberg for Sciences, Research and Arts.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

The Relationship between Elementary Chemical Composition and Extraction Method for Protium strumosum Daly species Resin

<p><em>The genus Protium Burm f., the most abundant of the Burseraceae family, has its primary center of diversity in the Amazon. Its main characteristic is the exudation of “Breu”, an aromatic resin collected directly from the trunk of the trees.</em></p><p><em>Stimulating pastes have been used to increase resin flow, such as 2-chloroethylphosphonic (Ethephon). It is important to evaluate variations in the composition of the resin extracted naturally and with the use of the stimulant, to guarantee the product quality. The inorganic analysis is also fundamental to verify the presence of compounds harmful to health.</em></p><p><em>A quali-quantitative elemental variation of the resin between the two extraction modes was proved by WD-XRF analysis. In 15 samples, Mg and F were only observed in those using Ethephon. In samples from the same tree, the qualitative difference is 54%, proving a discrepancy in the chemical composition of Breu, which can alter its properties.</em></p>

Hong Kong and the Echo

What do we know but that we face One another in this place? – W. B. Yeats, “Man and the Echo” HK. I loved my mountains, rivers, and trees long before towers and families, but if the only way the sea can speak to the hills is through the moon I will speak to you from the ink-dark about the changing tides, the slow equivocal pain of transition, how things are moving away from the norm, the deceptive comfort of a norm, the fading neon noises on Mong Kok streets, the kind of yellow you’ll only find in my heart, the Lion Rock spirit and the endangered species named after me: the grouper, cascade frog, incense tree. Echo. What do we know but that? HK. What’s the meaning of life in numbers? Although I count every second of mine I remember nothing of those Crownappointed governors come and gone who said nothing, did nothing, changed nothing. What are the promises in a red flag with five stars shooting out from one bauhinia? Twenty-two moon-calendars since I was re-unorphaned I stray and obey like a tree, half-crown, half-root, branching out and bedding in, each growth year a scar tissue erased by the smudges of shared stocks, fireworks, new railways and bridges. Echo. We face one another? We face one another? HK. What am I but the high-rise windows reflecting the sun and the lives below? Come, look into every single one and find millions of homemade voices in an impasse, in fissures, in boxlike existences where one language is never enough. High above I see black kites, sometimes white-bell sea eagles gliding between glass and cliff, drones and signals, eyeing the quick chance while larks, thrushes, and titmice are twittering in bamboo cages, bird to bird, sharing the captive sky with their distant counterparts as one sun drops under the horizon and a different one rises. Echo. In this place? In this place? In this place? Hong Kong and the Echo by Kit Fan Kit Fan was born and educated in Hong Kong before moving to the UK at twenty-one. His second collection, As Slow as Possible, was a Poetry Book Society Recommendation, one of the Guardian’s fifty biggest books in 2018, and The Irish Times Poetry Book of the Year. Visit worldlit.org to read Kit Fan’s poem “Lettuces in the New Territories.” HONG KONG PHOTO: JOEL FULGENCIO/UNSPLASH WORLDLIT.ORG 57 ...

Boswellia Gum Resin and Essential Oils: Potential Health Benefits − An Evidence Based Review

Traditional medicine is still widely practiced in many countries due to its complexity and long term benefit. Among various medicinal plants found in Dhofar region of Oman, frankincense has a unique position due to its medicinal and economical importance. The gum-resin and essential oil produced by different species, most of these are related to family Burseraceae under the Boswellia genus. The family members of Boswellia are characterized by resin bearing ducts. Among the twenty-nine species of genus Boswellia, (Burseraceae), Boswellia sacra Flueck is known since decades for the extraction of aromatic gums and resins that are burned as incense. Boswellia resin holds about 60-80% alcohol-soluble resin, 15-20% water soluble gum and 5-7 % essential oil, along with polysaccharide fraction and polymeric substances are also present in limited extent. The physicians and nutritionists show interest in frankincense due to the therapeutic potential of its gum resin and essential oil. Essential oil and gum resin of various species of frankincense has been used to make remedies to treat different diseases. Various reports have described the antimicrobial, immuno-modulatory, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, anticancer, anti-asthmatic, antidiarrheal, hypo-lipidemic, anti-diabetic, hepato-protective, and even antiviral effect of different Boswellia species. In this review, we have highlighted the works done so far on the use of Boswellia gum resin and health benefits along with some pilot clinical studies done on the Boswellia gum resin related products.

An Ethnopharmacological, Phytochemical and Pharmacological Review on Lignans from Mexican Bursera spp.

The genus Bursera belongs to the family Burseraceae and has been used in traditional Mexican medicine for treating various pathophysiological disorders. The most representative phytochemicals isolated from this genus are terpenoids and lignans. Lignans are phenolic metabolites known for their antioxidant, apoptotic, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, and anti-protozoal properties. Though the genus includes more than 100 species, we have attempted to summarize the biological activities of the 34 lignans isolated from selected Mexican Bursera plants.

Pharmacological effects of the isomeric mixture of alpha and beta amyrin from Protium heptaphyllum: a literature review

Protium heptaphyllum Aubl. belongs to the Burseraceae family. It is commonly called 'almecegueira' and is known to produce an amorphous resin which has constituents such as α- and β-amyrin, taraxastan-3-oxo-20-ol and sitostenonein. The α- and β-amyrin from P.heptaphyllum have pharmacological activities in several systems, such as central and peripheral nervous system, gastrointestinal tract and immunological system. In this study, our objective was to review pharmacological activities and to gather more information on the mixture of α- and β-amyrin obtained from P.heptaphyllum to guide future preclinical and clinical studies using this compound. This review consisted of searches performed using scientific databases such as PubMed, SciELO, LILACS, SciFinder and Science Direct. Some uses of α- and β-amyrin have been partially confirmed by previous studies demonstrating analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, antidepressive, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, antipancreatitic, anticholytic, antihyperglycemic and hypolipidemic effects. It is noteworthy that there are no α- and β-amirin toxicity tests described in the literature as recommended in the international guidelines, and such tests are one of the research stages to proceed in clinical and preclinical trials if this compound was to be used.

Extraction of acetyl 11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA) from Boswellia serrata plant oleo gum resin using novel three phase partitioning (TPP) technique

The oleo gum resin of Boswellia serrata belonging to family Burseraceae, is Ayurvedic medicine and has been used for the treatment of inflammatory diseases and arthritic diseases in many countries. Acetyl 11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA) is a potent anti-inflammatory agent obtained from oleo gum resin of Boswellic serrata. Our aim is to extract maximum amount of AKBA from Boswellic serrata by using Three Phase Partitioning (TPP) technique. In the TPP system, the effect of different process parameters such as ammonium sulfate concentration, extraction time, slurry to t-butanol ratio, solute to t-butanol ratio, pH and temperature, was studied in order to enhance the extraction of AKBA. Under the optimized conditions of ammonium sulfate concentration 0–50% (w/v), extraction time 180min, slurry to t-butanol ratio 1:1 (v/v), solute to solvent ratio 1:25 (w/v), pH 6 and temperature 50°C, the maximum yield of AKBA was found to be (80±0.33mg/g). TPP technique gave higher extraction yield of AKBA compared to conventional Soxhlet extraction (18±0.37mg/g), batch extraction (20±0.45mg/g), ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) (24.23±0.28mg/g). Thus, TPP can be recommended as an attractive and simple technique for the extraction of AKBA from Boswellic serrata.

Status and distribution patterns of selected medicinal and food tree species in Owerri West Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria

The distribution of medicinal and food tree species in Owerri West Local Government Area (LGA) of Imo State were assessed. Data were collected using socio-economic survey and biological study. A total of 50 respondents from the study area were randomly selected and relevant information on the uses and contributions of tree species of food and medicinal importance was collected through the use of semi-structured questionnaire and Focused Group Discussion (FGD). A total of ten communities were sampled, with one community in each of the ten political wards in the LGA. Tree species of ethno-botany and food relevance were identified and enumerated in the course of field survey in the study communities. The spatial distributions of six most-frequently utilized tree species were mapped using Geographical Information System (GIS). Data were statistically analyzed using descriptive statistics and one-way analysis of variance. A total of 22 tree species, belonging to16 families, known to be used for medicinal and food purposes, were identified in the ten study communities. Dacryodes edulis of the family Burseraceae was the most abundant tree species in the area having about 13% of the species encountered. In the study locations, the least-occurring species were Dialium guineensis and Garcinia kola with 0.27% each. Fabaceae and Rutaceae were the most represented families with 13.64% and 3 species each belonging to each of the two families. The six (6) mostly utilized species in the area were Dacryodes edulis, Chrysophyllum albidium, Persea americana, Psidium guajava, Mangifera indica and Moringa oleifera. The seven tree species that were abundant in the study area were Annona muricata, Citrus sinensis, Cola nitida, Dacryodes edulis, Elaeise quineensis Magifera indica and Psidium guajava with relative density (RD) of 6.29, 11.98, 12.72, 12.99, 6.16, 9.20 and 9.47, respectively. Dennettia tripetala and Persea americana were frequent species with RD values of 4.33 and 4.06, respectively. Dialium guineensis Garcinia kola and Pentaclethra macrophylla were threatened, having RD of 0.27, 0.27 and 0.47, respectively. A total of 8 tree species including: Anacardium occidentale, Azadirachta indica, Chrysophyllum albidium, Citrus aurantiifolia, Citrus lemon, Gliricidia sepium, Irvingia gaboneensis and Moringa oleifera were rare in the area with RD of 1.76, 1.49, 2.44, 2.44, 1.49, 1.69, 1.76 and 2.10, respectively. The threatened species include Dialium guineensis, Garcinia kola and Pentaclethra macrophylla with RD values of 0.27, 0.27 and 0.47, respectively. In seven of the ten communities, (i.e. Emeabiam, Eziobodo, Nekede, Ihiagwa, Okuku, Obinze, and Umuguma), Dacryodes edulis was the dominant species with 23, 35, 32, 32, 9, 10 and 14 stems, respectively while Mangifera indica predominated in Avu, Irete, and Ndegwu with 24, 14, and 11stems, respectively.Keywords: Species abundance, status, distribution, utilization, extinction

Fatty Acid Profiles of Garuga floribunda, Ipomoea pes‐caprae, Melanolepis multiglandulosa and Premna odorata Seed Oils

AbstractThe fatty acid profiles of the seed oils of four species from four plant families for which no or only sparse information on the fatty acid profiles is available are reported. The four seed oils are Garuga floribunda of the Burseraceae family, Ipomoea pes‐caprae, of the Convolvulaceae family, Melanolepis multiglandulosa of the Euphorbiaceae family, and Premna odorata of the Labiatae (Lamiaceae) family. Linoleic acid is the most abundant in three seed oils, except I. pes‐caprae in which oleic acid is most abundant. These two acids are overall the most abundant in all four seed oils studied. Of the four seed oils investigated, only G. floribunda contains minor amounts of a cyclic fatty acid (dihydrosterculic acid).

Thermal behavior and thermal degradation kinetic parameters of triterpene α, β amyrin

The pentacyclic triterpenes isomers α amyrin and β amyrin occurs naturally in several plant species, mainly at Burseraceae family. From the oleoresin of its most common species found in the Brazilian Amazon, Protium heptaphyllum, the mixture of α, β amyrin (ABAM) has been isolated and standardized. The aim of this study was to perform thermal analyses together with kinetic parameters of prototype degradation measurements of ABAM obtained from Amazonian commercial oleoresin samples. ABAM was characterized using by chromatographic and spectroscopic methods. X-ray diffraction and scanning electronic microscopy were used to evaluate the crystallinity and surface morphology. The thermoanalytical evaluation was performed through differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetry at different heating rates (2.5, 5.0 and 10.0 °C min−1). Fourier transformer infrared spectrometry was used to evaluate the heated samples at different temperatures (100, 150, 175, 200, 225 and 250 °C) in kilns, where the degradation kinetic parameters were evaluated through a variety of methods such as Ozawa, Coats–Redferm, Madhusudanan, Horowitz–Metzger and Van-Krevelen. The results are in accordance with the findings reported in the literature and the kinetic parameters determined by different methods are similar, with a zero-order kinetic and an activation energy of around 75–100 kJ mol−1. The spectral correlation did not show significant changes among the evident bands related to the molecule as the temperature increased, which indicates a thermal stability of ABAM.

Search for new antiprotozoal leads in oleo-gum-resins from plants of the family Burseraceae: Indian frankincense and myrrh

Search for new antiprotozoal leads in oleo-gum-resins from plants of the family Burseraceae: Indian frankincense and myrrh

English

Commiphora gileadensis is a tree in the burseraceae family, cultivated widely in Hadhramaut governorate (Yemen) and known locally as “Besham“ or Balsam” used traditionally for many ailments. The aim of this study was to evaluate the therapeutic and preventive effects of C. gileadensis against diethylnitrosamine (DEN) -induced hepatic injury in albino rats. 40 albino rats were divided randomly into five groups (each contains 8 animals). Group I (Negative control) was given normal saline i.p and distilled water, group II (Positive control) toxicity-initiated with single dose of DEN 200 mg/kg i.p and promoted after 2 weeks with 0.05% of phenobarbitone in drinking water to complete 10 weeks. Group III was given 500 mg/kg extract of C. gileadensis bark for 10 weeks. Groups IV (preventive group) pretreated with 500 mg/kg extract of C. gileadensis bark and injected with DEN 200 mg/kg i.p for 10 weeks. Groups V (Treatment group) was given single dose of DEN same like group II but for 6 weeks, then treated with 500 mg/kg C. gileadensis bark extracts orally for an additional 4 weeks. All doses were used according to the effective dose fixation. Liver function enzymes, complete blood count (CBC) and lipid profile were measured. In addition, fasting blood sugar (FBS) and total body weight were taken weekly. At the end of experiment relative weight of liver was calculated. C. gileadensis showed significant hepatoprotective effect as it reduced the liver function enzyme’s level, this effect was supported by hepatic histopathological improvement against DEN-induced hepatic injury. In addition, it demonstrated potent anti-platelets activity. The outcomes of this study suggested that C. gileadensis has novel hepatoprotective and remarkable anti- platelets effect.     Key words: Commiphora gileadensis, diethylnitrosamine, phenobarbitone, hepatic injury.   &nbsp

Sensitivity of clinical isolates of Candida to essential oils from Burseraceae family.

The aim of this study was to investigate the chemical composition and antifungal activity of four commercial essential oils from the Burseraceae family - two Boswellia carterii Flueck oils, Canarium luzonicum (Blume) A. Gray oil, and Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl oil, against most common Candida spp. recovered from the human oral cavity. The essential oil samples were analyzed by GC-FID and GC/MS. The analysis showed that major essential oils' components were α-pinene (23.04 % and 31.84 %), limonene (45.62 %) and curzerene (34.65 %), respectively. Minimum inhibitory (MIC) and minimum fungicidal (MFC) concentrations were determined using a microdilution standardized technique. All tested Candida spp. clinical isolates and ATCC strains showed susceptibility to tested essential oils in a dose dependent manner. The strongest antifungal activity was shown by essential oil of B. carterii, sample 2; the average MIC values ranged from 1.25 to 1.34 mg/ml, and MFC values ranged from 2.50 to 3.75 mg/ml, depending on the fungus. This study supports the possible use of essential oils from the Bursecaceae family in reduction and elimination of Candida spp. populations in patients with oral cavity fungal infections.

Boswellia serrata gum resin aqueous extract upregulatesBDNF but not CREB expression in adult male rat hippocampus.

Boswellia from the family Burseraceae has been proposed for prevention of amnesia; however, the molecular mechanism by which it affects memory is not clear. To reveal the potential molecular mechanism, the effects of boswellia on the expression of two memory related genes, CREB and BDNF, were investigated. Twenty-one male rats were randomly divided into 3 groups (n = 7): the control group received distilled water and the treatment groups received two doses of aqueous extract of Boswellia serrata gum resin (boswellia) (50 and 100 mg/kg) every day for 4 weeks. The animals were tested by the Morris water maze (MWM) and their hippocampus was isolated. Expression of CREB and BDNF genes was analyzed by Q-RT-PCR. The MWM test showed improvement in spatial learning and memory in both treatment groups. Gene expression analysis revealed a significant increase in BDNF but not CREB expression in rats treated with both 50 and 100 mg/kg doses in comparison with the control group. Although boswellia exerts its effects on memory formation at least partly by affecting the expression of BDNF, the results imply that boswellia probably affects memory via another BDNF-related pathway than the BDNF-CREB-BDNF cycle.

Topological Phenotypes Constitute a New Dimension in the Phenotypic Space of Leaf Venation Networks.

The leaves of angiosperms contain highly complex venation networks consisting of recursively nested, hierarchically organized loops. We describe a new phenotypic trait of reticulate vascular networks based on the topology of the nested loops. This phenotypic trait encodes information orthogonal to widely used geometric phenotypic traits, and thus constitutes a new dimension in the leaf venation phenotypic space. We apply our metric to a database of 186 leaves and leaflets representing 137 species, predominantly from the Burseraceae family, revealing diverse topological network traits even within this single family. We show that topological information significantly improves identification of leaves from fragments by calculating a “leaf venation fingerprint” from topology and geometry. Further, we present a phenomenological model suggesting that the topological traits can be explained by noise effects unique to specimen during development of each leaf which leave their imprint on the final network. This work opens the path to new quantitative identification techniques for leaves which go beyond simple geometric traits such as vein density and is directly applicable to other planar or sub-planar networks such as blood vessels in the brain.

Effect of seasoning on sprouting of stem cutting and their survival in threatened medicinal important plant, Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhan.

Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhan. known as Indian bdellium is a large shrub of family Burseraceae. Its oleo-gum resin is known to be anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, hypocholesterolmic, hypolipidemic, and antifertility agent. In order to extract more oleo-gum resin it has been overtapped in past, killing its natural populations thus prompting IUCN to keep it in ‘Data Deficient category’. Its ex-situ conservation through seed as well as vegetative propagation has met with variable success. Seasoning of stem cuttings for a duration that ensures more sprouting and consequent survival was, therefore, aim of this study. Cut stem cuttings kept for 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 days and treated with IBA (5000 ppm) revealed that maximum root biomass (0.56 g), maximum number of shoots (6) and length of shoots (49.50 cm) was found in five days seasoned stem cuttings. After 27 months of plantation maximum survival was found in four and five days seasoned stem cuttings (50% each) cuttings. Collar diameter (1.75 cm) was maximum in five day seasoned stem cuttings. Maximum plant height (119.75 cm) was in four days seasoned cuttings followed by five days seasoned cuttings (96 cm). Thus, four to five days of seasoning in the month of August emerged most optimum for sprouting of stem cuttings and their subsequent survival in field plantation.

The use of Chinese herbal drugs in Islamic medicine

This paper investigates some of the ways that Chinese medicine has been transferred to the Western world and to Islamic territories. During the Golden Age of Islam (8th to 13th century CE), the herbal drug trade promoted significant commercial and scientific exchange between China and the Muslim world. Chinese herbal drugs have been described by medieval Muslim medical scholars such as Tabari (870 CE), Rhazes (925 CE), Haly Abbas (982 CE), Avicenna (1037 CE) and Jurjani (1137 CE). The term al-sin (the Arabic word for China) is used 46 times in Avicenna's Canon of Medicine in reference to herbal drugs imported from China. Cinnamon (dar sini; “Chinese herb”), wild ginger (asaron), rhubarb (rivand-e sini), nutmeg (basbasa), incense tree wood (ood), cubeb (kababe) and sandalwood (sandal) were the most frequently mentioned Chinese herbs in Islamic medical books. There are also multiple similarities between the clinical uses of these herbs in both medical systems. It appears that Chinese herbal drugs were a major component of the exchange of goods and knowledge between China and the Islamic and later to the Western world amid this era.

10,000 year history of plant use at Bosumpra Cave, Ghana

Investigations of hunter-gatherer subsistence, early food production, and the development of agroforestry systems during the Later Stone Age (LSA) of West Africa have proven challenging because of limited recovery and analysis of archaeological evidence relating directly to subsistence. This paper examines changes in the use of plant resources over a 10,000 year period at Bosumpra Cave, southern Ghana. Large quantities of recovered Canarium schweinfurthii (incense tree) and Elaeis guineensis (oil palm) endocarp preserved at the site allow for the assessment of previous observations about changes in the relative importance of tree fruit resources over time. Results point to the possibility that C. schweinfurthii was a managed resource and may be useful as a marker of forager subsistence in tropical forest regions. The exploitation of C. schweinfurthii persisted in the early and middle Holocene, but was eventually overshadowed in the late Holocene by Kintampo food-producing economies based on Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet), Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) and E. guineensis. The Bosumpra deposits also yielded domesticated pearl millet and cowpea, allowing for the comparison of LSA hunter-gatherer and early food producer subsistence practices and cultural interactions in southern Ghana.

Cross-border itinerant poaching of agarwood in Hong Kong's peri-urban forests

In Asia, the rising demands for agarwood concurrent with reduced supply due to over-exploitation, habitat loss and tightened control on harvest have significantly raise its price. Aquilaria sinensis (Incense Tree or Chenxiang), native to south China, yields commercially highly-valuable agarwood. In mainland China, it has been excessively plundered over many decades, and has been designated an endangered species at the national level to reinforce legal protection. Successful nature conservation and absence of tapping by local residents in Hong Kong have maintained a healthy tree stock, offering the last haven in China for the remnant trees. This spatial disparity in the abundance and protection status of the two tree subpopulations has driven cross-border itinerant poachers to harvest the local trees illegally. The porous border between Hong Kong and mainland China under the one-country two-systems political regime and the huge influx of visitors have facilitated the cross-border crime. In the frenetic search for the prized agarwood usually hidden in the core of trunks and large branches, many old trees have been gravely damaged or felled. The excessive and destructive wildlife crime could not be contained by local law enforcement and CITES international trade regulation. It has not been designated an endangered or protected species despite recent rise in theft. The preferential loss of large meritorious trees signifies erosion of superior seed sources and genetic quality. Proceeding at an alarming rate with limited arrests and prosecutions, the continued depletion could render the species endangered. From an analysis of underlying factors and processes, a package of 26 statutory, administrative and scientific actions is proposed to curb the illicit theft and smuggling.