Inca Research Articles

Food and Labour under Imperial Rule: Unravelling the Food Landscape of Transplanted Workers (mitmaqkuna) in the Inka Empire

The Inka empire's expansion incorporated diverse cultural and ecological elements in microcosmic representations of their empire. Imperial practices included the resettlement of communities from various regions into labour enclaves near Inka ceremonial, administrative and economic hubs. This degree of imperial control might suggest a limitation on Inka subjects’ freedom to integrate non-local food resources into their diets. Employing starch grain analysis from stone tools, we seek to identify the range of plant food sources and examine the extent to which the Inka imposed constraints on inter-community interactions and the exchange of comestibles. Focusing on a translocated labour force residing near the Inka provincial centre of Vilcashuamán, our findings reveal the consumption of a variety of edible plants originating from multiple, occasionally distant, ecological regions. The results indicate that, in contrast to the restrictions on trade of other commodities as recorded in ethnohistorical accounts and previous archaeological research, the exchange of edible plant species among the subjugated peoples may have been less regulated. This study demonstrates how food landscapes potentially served as loci of resistance to the Inka empire's manipulative cosmopolitanism.

The Huaca of Qollmay, Chinchaypujio, Cusco, Peru

This article reviews archival documents and results from a large-scale excavation at the site of Qollmay, providing new insights into Inca huaca worship and the significance of this particular huaca in the Cusco region. Specifically, it examines the establishment of the Qollmay huaca, the activities conducted within it, and its destruction by Spanish clergy during an early anti-idolatry campaign. By detailing the Qollmay huaca, we gain a deeper understanding of the Inca state's investments in sacred sites and how these places were used to legitimize state rule.

A high-precision radiocarbon chronology of Inka rule in the Upper Loa River Region of northern Chile

Abstract The chronology of the Inka Empire is poorly resolved, with most scholars utilizing a post hoc ethnohistoric reconstruction of imperial expansion as a common reference point. Radiocarbon-based analyses can now accomplish sufficient resolution for meaningful independent estimates of Inka chronology, however, and it is incumbent upon archaeologists to develop such appraisals. Here we produce a Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon data from the Upper Loa River area of northern Chile to estimate the timing of Inka incorporation of this region. In order to accurately associate samples with Inka rule, only radiocarbon dates from Inka sites without prior occupations are used (n = 34), producing a model for the onset of Inka rule of AD 1401–1437 (95% hpd) with a median date of AD 1420. This estimate is further used as a point of comparison for understanding diachronic imperial processes in the region. Site-level models of a variety of site types indicate that the Inka rapidly founded several administrative/mining bases at the onset, followed by the addition of smaller infrastructure components during a second pulse of activity near the middle of the 15th century. Date assemblages at the agricultural sites of Topaín and Paniri also indicate a decline in activity at the former and an increase in activity at the latter from early on in Inka rule. These results provide a high-resolution data point for reconstructing Inka imperial chronology, and expanding such studies will be essential to understanding processes of Inka imperialism at larger scales.

Semantic Segmentation and Classification of Active and Abandoned Agricultural Fields through Deep Learning in the Southern Peruvian Andes

The monumental scale agricultural infrastructure systems built by Andean peoples during pre-Hispanic times have enabled intensive agriculture in the high-relief, arid/semi-arid landscape of the Southern Peruvian Andes. Large tracts of these labor-intensive systems have been abandoned, however, owing in large measure to a range of demographic, economic, and political crises precipitated by the Spanish invasion of the 16th century CE. This research seeks to better understand the dynamics of agricultural intensification and deintensification in the Andes by inventorying through the semantic segmentation of active and abandoned agricultural fields in satellite imagery across approximately 77,000 km2 of the Southern Peruvian Highlands. While manual digitization of agricultural fields in satellite imagery is time-consuming and labor-intensive, deep learning-based semantic segmentation makes it possible to map and classify en masse Andean agricultural infrastructure. Using high resolution satellite imagery, training and validation data were manually produced in distributed sample areas and were used to transfer-train a convolutional neural network for semantic segmentation. The resulting dataset was compared to manual surveys of the region and results suggest that deep learning can generate larger and more accurate datasets than those generated by hand.

The timing and mode of southern Andean human migrations

Abstract While recent genomic and isotopic information show that migration has been pervasive along human history, southern Andean archaeology has largely overlooked its importance in shaping human trajectories of sociocultural change. Building on previous isotopic research that identified the presence of migrant farmers in the Uspallata Valley (Mendoza, Argentina), we present chronological and bioarchaeological results that help to characterize the timing and mode of human migrations in the southern Andes. The burials with migrants show the representation of the different age classes, including a high abundance of children, as well as both men and women, suggesting that family groups were likely involved. The Bayesian modeling of 16 direct dates for migrants indicates that these migrations started between 1210–1275 CE (median 1255 CE) and finished at 1320–1425 CE (median 1360 CE), indicating that there is nearly no overlap between the commencement of this migration phase and the southwards expansion of the Inka Empire. The model defines a diachronic process that lasted between 55 and 195 years, implying that migration to Uspallata was a multi-generational process that involved between two and eight generations (median of four generations). Our contextual, bioarchaeological and chronological evidence indicates that the conditions fostering migration to Uspallata were sustained through time, inviting to explore persisting push-pull dynamics acting during this period. 87Sr/86Sr results show that migration occurred across the daily territories of these groups and may have involved movement across social or ethnic frontiers.

The Genomic and Cultural Diversity of the Inka Qhapaq Hucha Ceremony in Chile and Argentina.

The South American archaeological record has ample evidence of the socio-cultural dynamism of human populations in the past. This has also been supported through the analysis of ancient genomes, by showing evidence of gene flow across the region. While the extent of these signals is yet to be tested, the growing number of ancient genomes allows for more fine-scaled hypotheses to be evaluated. In this study, we assessed the genetic diversity of individuals associated with the Inka ritual, Qhapaq hucha. As part of this ceremony, one or more individuals were buried with Inka and local-style offerings on mountain summits along the Andes, leaving a very distinctive record. Using paleogenomic tools, we analyzed three individuals: two newly generated genomes from El Plomo Mountain (Chile) and El Toro Mountain (Argentina), and a previously published genome from Argentina (Aconcagua Mountain). Our results reveal a complex demographic scenario with each of the individuals showing different genetic affinities. Furthermore, while two individuals showed genetic similarities with present-day and ancient populations from the southern region of the Inka empire, the third individual may have undertaken long-distance movement. The genetic diversity we observed between individuals from similar cultural contexts supports the highly diverse strategies Inka implemented while incorporating new territories. More broadly, this research contributes to our growing understanding of the population dynamics in the Andes by discussing the implications and temporality of population movements in the region.

Gathering, agriculture, and exchange: an ethnoecological approach to the study of food patterns and feedstuff sources in communities of the Central Andes, Peru

BackgroundHistorically, the Andean people have experienced uncertainty in terms of the availability of food resources because of climatic and ecological variations that are typical of mountainous environments. Risk management strategies, including the diversified and complementary use and management of species and ecosystems at different elevations, have faced such uncertainty. The current effects of climate change on food security motivate studies on subsistence adaptative strategies. TEK offers extraordinary experience and local biocultural memory to meet present and future needs. From an ethnoecological perspective, we aim to identify the variety of local foods in Andean communities, their cultural and nutritional value for local people, their use frequencies, and their forms to obtain them from different environments, productive systems, and interchanges. We expected to identify traditional Andean diversified subsistence patterns despite the pressure of modern food and interchange systems.MethodsThis study was conducted in two communities in the highlands of the Department of Huánuco, Peru. We conducted 24 semistructured interviews with households sampled through the snowball method. We asked about their daily life food, plant and animal components of diet, frequencies and seasons in which they are consumed, and ways to obtain them. We complemented the information through ethnobotanical collection of wild, weedy, and ruderal edible plants and records on domestic and wild animals included in the diet.ResultsWe recorded 37 crop species, 13 domestic animals, 151 wild, weedy, and ruderal food plant species, the 3 most commonly consumed wild animals, and 52 processed products obtained from local stores and markets. The main crops are potato and maize, while the main domestic animals included in the diet are cattle, pigs, and sheep. Rice, pasta, and bread are the main raw and processed foods included in the diet. Crops represent nearly half of the food consumed and purchased (in kg/year), and tubers and cereals provide most of the kilocalories, carbohydrates and proteins. Wild, weedy, and ruderal plants are consumed in relatively low amounts and at relatively low frequencies per species, but overall, they constitute a significant proportion of the kg of annually consumed food (14.4% in Cani and 9.6% in Monte Azul). Knowledge and use of these resources play a key role in local cuisine and nutrition.ConclusionThe current food patterns studied are based on diverse diets, including multiple feedstuffs, sources, and practices to obtain them, which reflects the traditional Andean subsistence pattern. The increasing adoption of processed food has influenced the declining consumption of local food, mainly among young people. Communication and policies to promote local food, emphasizing the role of wild plants and their adequate consumption, and provide information on their nutritional value are recommended to support efforts toward food sovereignty and conservation of Andean biocultural diversity.

The Legacy of the Inca Empire Through the Vernacular Architecture in the City of Ollantaytambo, Cusco, Peru

Vernacular architecture is the legacy of cultures over time. Undoubtedly, it is part of the identity of a community. Especially when it is the legacy of an empire as great as the Inca empire. Due to the importance of this empire, the main objective of this research was to determine the legacy of the Inca Empire through vernacular architecture in the city of Ollantaytambo, Cusco, Peru. Likewise, the research was basic, descriptive, non- experimental and cross-sectional. The population consisted of 2 714 dwellings and the sample consisted of 338 dwellings. Observation and bibliographic review techniques were used for data collection. The results indicated that most people live in dwellings with only one or two rooms. The shape of the houses is regular. The interior of the houses is mostly made of wood. The exterior walls are made of stone and adobe. The roof is made of tiles with "par" and "nudiños" shears, and also uses "enchaclado de carrizo" and "torta de barro". Undoubtedly, the houses have inherited the characteristics of the architecture of the Inca empire. Therefore, it was concluded that the houses in the city of Ollantaytambo are a clear example of the legacy of the Inca empire through vernacular architecture.

Summary vision on the symbology of the sacred mountains of theAndes

Los estudios del comportamiento religioso de los pueblos an- dinos aún no logran concitar trabajos en profundidad a los especialistas de la ciencia social, debido al preconcepto académico del «panteón de los dioses andinos» y por el contex- to del proceso de desacralización urbana de nuestro tiempo. No obstante, algunos lograron elucidar las fórmulas rituales y las expresiones del mito como componentes e improntas del sistema religioso en acción. Y, en cuanto son hechos so- ciales, están relacionadas a las capacidades productivas, a los sentimientos sociales y al sistema de valores de su entorno. Con esta preocupación nos proponemos mostrar un limitado sumario bibliográfico de aportes conceptuales, avances teóricos y registros etnográficos del pensamiento religioso andino contemporáneo. Partiendo de nuestra experiencia en la regiónde Ayacucho sobre el manejo conceptual del pagapu y wamani como ejes rituales de propiciación y núcleos duros de matrizcultural, en un contexto de los movimientos migratorios y de los conflictos sociales crecientes.

Summary vision on the symbology of the sacred mountains of theAndes

Studies of the religious behavior of the Andean peoples have not yet been able to attract specialists in social science, due tothe academic preconception of the «pantheon of the Andean gods» and the context of the process of urban desacralization of our time. However, some managed to elucidate the ritual formulas and expressions of myth as components and imprints of the religious system in action. And, insofar as they are social facts, they are related to the productive capacities,social feelings and the value system of their environment. With this concern, we propose to show a limited bibliographic summary of conceptual contributions, theoretical advances and ethnographic records of contemporary Andean religiousthought. Based on our experience in the Ayacucho region on the conceptual management of pagapu and wamani as ritual axes of propitiation and hard nuclei of cultural matrix, in a context of migratory movements and growing social conflicts.

Un imperio en movimiento: género, movilidad femenina y <i>acllas</i> en el Tahuantinsuyo (1400 - 1532 d. C.)

Numerous studies have explored mobility along the Qhapaq Ñan. Most of them examine how the road influenced local, regional, and imperial dynamics by fostering exchange relationships and connecting societies, people, and territories. These investigations explicitly or implicitly assume that it was male individuals who mobilized to build the Tahuantinsuyo, while women remained within the domestic unit or were confined to imperial buildings. In this study, we seek to acknowledge potential patterns of women’s mobility as part of female collectives, including those identified as acllas (chosen ones) or mamaconas (matrons) within the Tahuantinsuyo territory, through a gender perspective. We do so by drawing on five cases supported by biogenetic data and published textile analysis, as well as ethnohistorical data from Inca llacta cemeteries and capacocha ritual events (a ritual of obligation to the Inca state where infants were offered). We identified modes of movement that consider the distance traveled, the age of female individuals, and the political motives framing each activity, and which, in turn, construct identity, Finally, our analysis indicates that the visualization and analysis of individuals’ mobility experiences are associated with types of movement related to local, regional, or imperial political interests that reveal certain logics of movement that have been hidden, in this case, those of female experiences within the Tahuantinsuyo.

Designing Truth between Manuscript and Publication: The Eighteenth-Century French Vision of Peru in Marmontel’s Les Incas (1777)

This essay interrogates the tensions between historical fact and colonial fiction in Jean-François Marmontel’s Les Incas, ou le destruction de l’Empire du Pérou (1777). Through this study of deleted passages and publisher notes in the 1776 manuscript of the novel (Houghton Library, Harvard University), Marmontel’s concern with verisimilitude, truth, and objective reality belies the fantasy of conquest and the myths of American Indigeneity that are central to eighteenth-century French understandings and imaginings of the Inca Empire and the American continent as a whole. Politically, the novel served a dual purpose: to vehemently denounce the Spanish conquest of the Americas and to subversively critique the “fanaticism” of the ancien régime in the years leading up the 1789 Revolution. Across the Atlantic, the novel was read by generals of the Latin American Wars of Independence, and it shifted from an allegorical text to a direct call for revolution. Despite Marmontel’s aim of creating a philosophical and historical novel, Les Incas perpetuates the hegemonies and hierarchies of colonialism, falling back onto well-established tropes. In choosing what was considered in Europe as “exotic” as a vehicle for political critique, Les Incas maintains and reinforces the very systems against which the revolutionaries of the late eighteenth century fought.

Small-scale pottery production and distribution in the southern confines of the Inca Empire: an archaeometric insight to define the Provincial style

Small-scale pottery production and distribution in the southern confines of the Inca Empire: an archaeometric insight to define the Provincial style

The Ushnus in the astronomy of the Inca culture

AbstractInferences are made about the relationship that existed between the Ushnus, pyramid‐shaped, terraced structures used by the Incas in the most important ceremonies of the Tawantinsuyo, and Inka Astronomy. We draw attention to Ayni, Kawsaypacha, Duality, and Tinkuy principles, multidimensional codes of conduct and wisdom that are at the root of the Andean cosmovision and on their perception of the world and the Cosmos. These principles, examined as postulates, allow to elaborate axiomatic propositions to identify the Ushnus with ancient Astronomy practices. In a complementary statement, starting from a bi‐conditional proposition, we may infer through reciprocal corollaries that the Inka earliest roots to a holistic learning and educational ambient in the Tawantinsuyo was not elitist, instead it was based on a epistemological construct that differs from the corresponding Western educational ambients. An epistemological and cognitive approach allows to identify an ancient elaborate process of knowledge construction, based on the four fundamental principles, corresponding to different levels of assimilation and comprehension. As a complementary aspect, we identify some of the most preserved Ushnus of the Inka “Empire.” Then we complement this contribution with a broader interpretation for the Ushnus.

Phytotherapy Used in Ailments of the Digestive System by Andean Inhabitants of Pampas, Huancavelica, Peru

The use of medicinal plants for the therapy of diseases of the digestive system, where the Andean peoples developed various forms of administration. The objective is to identify medicinal plants used in the therapy of ailments of the digestive system by the Andean inhabitants of Pampas, Tayacaja, Huancavelica, Peru. Methods: Non-probabilistic sampling, using the “snowball” technique, carrying out semi-structured surveys, allowing information to be collected on the prevalence of ailments or diseases of the digestive system treated with medicinal plants, with inhabitants over 20 years of age participating and using the medicinal plants in the therapy of your digestive system ailments, and exclude those inhabitants who do not comply with it. Results: A total of 16 families, 33 genera, and 34 species are reported, where the families that present the greatest abundance of species are Asteraceae and Lamiaceae. The widely used species are Minthostachys mollis (11.9%), Aloe vera (10.4%), Clinopodium bolivianum (9%), Artemisia absinthium (9%), and Matricaria chamomilla (8.2%). Concluding with the identification of a diversity of medicinal flora, used in the therapy of diseases of the digestive system, such as stomach pain, constipation, gallbladder ailments, gastritis, and gastrointestinal, and liver diseases.

Extending Conquest History:Lesser-Known Events and the Fringes of European Conquest

Certain characters and their roles in the European conquest of America are well known: Christopher Columbus, Hernando Cortés, Francisco Pizarro, Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, and a few others. Likewise, scholarly interest in the conquest has focused on the centers of great political, economic, and cultural entities such as the Aztec Empire in Mesoamerica and the Inca Empire in the Central Andes.

Absolute Chronology revisited: Integrating precise Bayesian models from Machu Picchu with Inca ethnohistoric praise narratives

Recent articles provide a captivating set of radiocarbon dates from Machu Picchu and environs, with important ramifications for the site and the Inca Empire more broadly. Here, we present Bayesian models of these dates that incorporate life history details of each dated individual, including age at death, age of tissue formation for dated samples, family relationships, and associated grave goods. We calibrate dates with a bespoke calibration curve mixture specific to Machu Picchu. These model boundaries suggest the site was first occupied ∼ AD 1435 (1410–1455, 95%) and abandoned ∼ AD 1495 (1480–1515, 95%). This is consistent with dates from the region and builds on the consensus that ethnohistoric dates are unreliable. Anchoring Inca history to this radiocarbon chronology allows us to explore the ethnohistoric sources in a new light. We can more plausibly trace the life history of the ruler Pachacutec, including his founding of the Machu Picchu royal estate. Regionally, this approach leads us to reassess the conquest of the earliest and largest Inca conquest, the southern quarter. This area was subject to waves of intense interaction for nearly two centuries by multiple royal houses, possibly starting under Yahuar Huacac, Pachacutec's grandfather, events that were almost completely scrubbed from Inca praise narratives.

Warfare, Political Economy, and Social Formations: Considering Central Andean Prehistory

Warfare is critical for anthropologists and prehistorians studying variation in human economies and societies. To view this variable comparatively, we must consider severity and regularity as documented by defensive facilities and locations, nature and frequency of weaponry, and bodily injuries likely from combat. Arkush (2022 and companion article) provides detailed documentation for explaining Andean warfare. Here, I look at war- fare as a constellations of phenomena involving raiding for wealth, competition over cor porate land ownership, and conquest warfare by complex chiefdoms and states aimed at maximizing the extraction of surpluses. My goal is to model warfare as imbedded within political economies with different goals and means based on sources of economic power. This is fundamentally a Marxist orientation, considering contrasting modes of economic organization representing competitive processes between interest groups. The Andean data suggest that warfare was elementally competition for corporately held agricultural lands intensified by facilities including especially irrigation. It varied in frequency and severity with population density increasing through time. With the emergence of institutional finance, however, overarching polities focus on conquest and intimidation to maximize surplus extraction as they imposed regional peace as documented for example by coastal EIP states and the Inca empire. Elaboration of offensive weaponry did not characterize Andean sequences in sharp contrast to Bronze and Iron Age Europe, suggesting distinctive trajectories of warfare. Key for success in Andean warfare was sizes of fighting forces as characterized by the numbers of sandals on the ground.

Mikhuspa Ukyaspa Ima Tinkuyku: Food and Drinks as Mediators of Encounters in Andean Festivals

AbstractMikhuspa ukyaspa ima tinkuyku is Quechua for “eating and drinking, we encounter one another.” Food and drinks have historically been important mediators in the development and renewal of relationships of reciprocity in the Andean region. This article demonstrates how contemporary Andean people continue to use food and drinks to mediate encounters where knowledge transmission and community building take place. In particular, the article explains how members of a dance troupe in Cusco, Peru, use food and drinks to integrate its new members into the dance troupe, teach them the traditions of the group, and explore and (re)define their relationships of reciprocity. By sharing food and drinks, dancers connect their Quechua heritage with their lived experiences to explore and (re)shape their own identities. The article employs a research methodology that centers local epistemology, particularly the Quechua concept of tinkuy, defined as an encounter of different elements that creates something new.

The Late Intermediate Period in the south-central Andes (AD 1000–1450): Key problems in chronology

The Late Intermediate Period (LIP, cal AD 1000–1450) in the central Andes is defined as a hiatus after the collapse of Tiwanaku and Wari, expansive state polities of the Middle Horizon (cal AD 600–1000), and before the domination of the Inca empire in the Late Horizon (cal AD 1450–1532). The LIP is often characterized as a unit, but major developments took place within this long period, including diasporic migrations and the new colonization of some regions, demographic change, intensified conflict, large-scale adverse climate episodes, and changes associated with the onset of Inca expansion. Here we make a preliminary attempt to clarify the chronology of these developments. A database of published and new radiocarbon dates is compiled for the south-central highlands and coastal valleys in order to model overall and subregional demographic trends using an updated “dates-as-data” cumulative kernel density estimate (CKDE) approach, and to examine specific LIP phenomena in two subregions. Our results indicate major demographic change including 1) substantial population growth beginning in the 13th century, 2) a marked 14th-century population surge in most, but not all, subregions included here, 3) evidence of population decline in several subregions during the same intervals when neighboring populations are expanding. Population growth was associated with intensified violence and increased physiological stress in the upper Nasca drainage. In the altiplano of Peru and Bolivia, population growth accompanied the rise of defensive hillforts and monumental cemeteries. Our date models also indicate a more complicated terminal LIP in the altiplano, with the height of classically “LIP” societies overlapping with early evidence for imperial Inca presence. This paper highlights the ways that more refined chronology can make advances in our understanding of a turbulent post-collapse era in the Andes.