Improving Household Food Research Articles

Role of livestock projects in empowering women smallholder farmers for sustainable food security in rural Kenya

Women are a major human resource and assure adequate nutrition, health and cognitive development of their households and children in their formative years. However, women are over-represented among the poor, suffer heavy workloads and have little control over resources for family care. Poverty and food insecurity are enhanced by lack of access to, and control over assets, and lack of access to institutions that provide opportunities and buffer from shocks and crises. The need to improve household food security and empower women in households has seenthe implementation of agricultural projects, particularly livestock projects that target women smallholder farmers. These projects are used as one of the major strategies to expand agricultural output in rural areas. Livestock contributes a higher share of income to rural households, improves food security and possibly enhances women’s participation in civic activities. Livestock development projects seek to empower women through increased household incomes, improve household incomes of women and nutritional status of women and other members of the households. This paper sought to establish a link between participation in livestockprojects, socio-economic status and nutritional status of index women. A crosssectional survey with a case-control model was conducted to establish the link between participation in a livestock project. Socio-economic and nutritional status of women from beneficiary and non-beneficiary households of livestock projects in Vihiga District, Kenya was assessed using both the Body Mass and the Brokas Index. A total of 300 beneficiary and non-beneficiary women were interviewed and their heights and weights measured during the study. Results revealed better incomes, education levels and nutritional status among the beneficiary women.Development projects can attain their objectives when there is deliberate effort to ensure that the project goals are understood by all stakeholders, to create commitment to resource re-direction and embrace the purpose of the project. There has to be proper understanding of the familial and community cultures and practices if the course of women is to be addressed profitably, with full support of their husbands and the entire household for the success of the project.

Would halving unemployment contribute to improved household food security for men and women?

abstract South Africa faces great challenges with extremely high unemployment and deep poverty. A large proportion of households are challenged to meet minimum required nutrition levels. In 2009, the HSRC prepared employment scenarios to see how unemployment might be reduced by 50% between 2004 and 2014, even in the context of the downturn. These scenarios consider what working people might earn in these different scenarios. There is a question as to whether wage income, even in a context of substantially reduced unemployment, would be sufficient to enable working households to achieve nutrition security by 2014. There are substantial differences in households led by men and women. Women have a more precarious foothold in the labour market, tending to be located in lower-paid sectors. The downturn has especially exacerbated this disadvantage, as proportionately more women became unemployed. The economic upturn has led to jobs being created for men, but continued job losses for women. This briefing considers employment trends in the context of the global economic crisis, gender bias in these trends, and the implications for household food security. It is then considered how food security status might change depending on different employment scenarios.

A Framework for Analyzing the Role of ICT on Agricultural Commercialization and Household Food Security

Lack of agricultural information has been attributed to the inability of smallholder farmers to transition from subsistence to commercial agriculture. Recent efforts to improve smallholder access to agricultural information have seen increased application of ICT technologies in developing agriculture. These efforts use ICT-based market information to reduce transaction costs of smallholder participation in markets, promote commercialization, and improve household food security. Emerging studies document the benefits of such ICT-based applications in agriculture, including increased incomes and improved performance of agricultural markets. Unfortunately these studies have been context specific and the link between provision of ICT-based market information, smallholder commercialization and household security remains unclear. This paper develops a framework that can be used to analyze the link between ICT application in smallholder agriculture, household commercialization, and food security. The paper generates testable hypotheses relating ICT application in agriculture and reduction in transactions costs, smallholder farmer commercialization, and household food security. It then provides illustrative cases where ICT application in agriculture has benefited smallholder production and improved market performance. However, more research must be done to test the generated hypotheses. The paper discusses the implications of the framework for practitioners.

An integrated economic and education intervention (the ENAM project) decreased household food insecurity in rural Ghana

Interventions that enhance women's incomes and nutrition knowledge are likely to improve household food security through increased economic contribution to food expenditures and better nutrition practices. From May 2006 to September 2007, the ENAM project provided nutrition education and enterprise development services for 180 caregivers of young children in three ecological zones of Ghana, with the goal of improving household food security and child nutrition. A control sample of 287 households were also recruited. At baseline, almost three‐quarters of households expressed concern about their inability to meet their food needs and about half of adults and children were reported to consume less food than desired because of poverty. Locale, household size and type, and income were associated independently with food security in the past month (p<0.05). The logistic regression model demonstrated that, compared to control households, there was about a 50% decrease in the risk of food insecurity among intervention households at the final intervention time point (p<0.05). An integrated intervention that addresses barriers to availability, accessibility, and utilization of ASF can reduce household food insecurity. This is a collaborative research effort of ENAM researchers with support through the GL‐CRSP, funded in part by USAID, Grant # PCE‐G‐00‐98‐00036‐00.

Capturing the Spectrum of Household Food and Beverage Purchasing Behavior: A Review

The household setting may be the most important level at which to understand the food choices of individuals and how healthful food choices can be promoted. However, there are few available measures of the food purchase behaviors of households and little consensus on the best way to measure it. This review explores the currently available measures of household food purchasing behavior. Three main measures are described, evaluated, and compared: home food inventories, food and beverage purchase records and receipts, and Universal Product Code bar code scanning. The development of coding, aggregation, and analytical methods for these measures of household food purchasing behavior is described. Currently, annotated receipts and records are the most comprehensive, detailed measure of household food purchasing behavior, and are feasible for population-based samples. Universal Product Code scanning is not recommended due to its cost and complexity. Research directions to improve household food purchasing behavior measures are discussed.

Animal source food intake is lower in households with children who experience food insecurity

Animal source food (ASF) intake in young children has been associated with improved dietary quality and growth outcomes. The ENAM project provides technical and financial support for income generation activities of caregivers of young children in selected districts in Ghana, with the goal of improving household food security and ASF utilization in children's diets. Baseline data from the ENAM project was analyzed to compare child dietary intakes and anthropometry between 123 households that experienced child‐level food‐insecurity and 391 households in which children were food secure. Caregiver wealth rank (p<0.001), occupation (p=0.004), weekly income (p=0.011), and locality (p<0.001) were associated with food security among the children in the past month. The likelihood of eating ASF and the frequency of consuming ASF within the past week were positively associated with children's food security (p<0.01). However, child WHZ (95% CI: −0.20, 0.22); WAZ (95% CI:−0.18, 0.25) and HAZ (95% CI:−0.22, 0.35) did not differ by food security status. In this setting, food security was related to ASF intake but not anthropometry in 2‐ to 5‐y‐old children. Support was through GL‐CRSP, funded in part by USAID, Grant # PCE‐G‐00‐98‐00036‐00.

Food-based approaches to combat the double burden among the poor: challenges in the Asian context.

Estimates of FAO indicate that 14% of the population worldwide or 864 million in 2002-2004 were undernourished in not having enough food to meet basic daily energy needs. Asia has the highest number of undernourished people, with 163 million in East Asia and 300 million in South Asia. Meanwhile obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases continue to escalate in the region. The double burden of malnutrition also affects the poor, which is a serious problem in Asia, as it has the largest number of poor subsisting on less than $1/day. As poverty in the region is predominantly rural, agriculture-based strategies are important for improving household food security and nutritional status. These measures include shifting toward production of high-value products for boosting income, enhancing agricultural biodiversity, increasing consumption of indigenous food plants and biofortified crops. Urban poor faces additional nutritional problems being more sensitive to rising costs of living, lack of space for home and school gardening, and trade-offs between convenience and affordability versus poor diet quality and risk of contamination. Time constraints faced by working couples in food preparation and child care are also important considerations. Combating the double burden among the poor requires a comprehensive approach including adequate public health services, and access to education and employment skills, besides nutrition interventions.

Rural Poverty and Diversification of Farming Systems in Upper Northeast Thailand

In northeast Thailand, 85% of the farmers are smallholders who are unable to meet their basic needs from agricultural production only. These tiny farms survive thanks to non-farm income, which faces increased difficulties as other economic sectors ran out of steam during the recent economic crisis of the late 1990s. In this context, farmers have to rely more on their agricultural production activity and income. But how can this be made possible in a region well-known for its very constraining soil and climatic conditions? To answer this question, and to examine the whole complexity of agricultural development issues, this article proposes an analysis of recent agrarian transformations and an understanding of farmers’ current practices and strategies. A diagnostic analysis of a village agrarian system located in Khon Kaen Province in upper northeast Thailand was carried out in 2002 by using a combination of field observations, interviews with key witnesses of the local history, and a farm survey of 26 diverse households. The recent history illustrates that farmers have shown a high adaptability to rapid changes in their economic environment, such as changing market demand for agricultural products and labour. The differentiation among farming households has led to different types of farmers with different resources, practices, and strategies. Families belonging to the most frequent type have a very tiny holding and their members are permanently or seasonally involved in unskilled off-farm activities. Their low and unstable total cash income is often insufficient to meet the family’s basic needs and they become deeply indebted. As efforts to improve water availability are being made, many Isarn families could improve their living conditions by diversifying their agricultural production systems with more small-scale fruit, vegetable, fish, or livestock production to improve household food security and cash income, eventually combined with non-agricultural activities. But currently, such a strategy is still out of reach for numerous very poor farmers facing elimination across the region, and government support to help them catch up is still needed.

P86: WIC Farmers' Market Nutrition Program (FMNP) Improves Diet Quality and Increases Perceived Fruit and Vegetable Benefits of Female Heads of WIC Households but Does not Improve Household Food Insecurity

Food insecurity negatively impacts health and diet quality, including fruit (F) and vegetable (V) intake. This study examined differences in household (HH) food security status (FSS), FV intake and behaviors, and health between women heading: 1) HHs participating in WIC alone; and 2) HHs in both WIC and FMNP. Using validated measures of HH FSS, FV intake and behaviors, and health, Athens County (Ohio) WIC HHs [WIC, n = 829; FMNP, n = 246)] were surveyed [Response Rate (RR): WIC, n = 162 (19.5% RR); FMNP, n = 56 (22.8% RR)]. Of 213, 61 (28.6%) were living in food secure HHs, while 42 (19.7%), 70 (32.9%), and 40 (18.8%) were living in at risk for food insecurity, food insecure (FI) without hunger, and FI with hunger HHs, respectively. Of 215, only 1 HH (0.5%) had clear evidence of child hunger. For the entire sample, food insecurity was associated with poorer health (r = −0.187, P = .007) and poorer diet quality (r = -.247, P < .001). FSS (t-test, P = .818) and health (t-test, P = .087) did not differ between groups. V intake servings were greater among FMNP (2.3 ± 1.2), compared to WIC (1.9 ± 1.0) (t-test, P = .026). F intake did not differ (t-test, P = .642). While self efficacy (t-test, P = .727) and perceived control (t-test, P = .205) did not differ, both perceived benefit (t-test, P = .031) and perceived diet quality (t-test, P = .027) were greater for FMNP. While HH FSS does not appear to be improved through FMNP, diet quality, especially V intake, appears to be improved. Further study is warranted in larger samples in Ohio and across the US.

Gender roles and impacts of oil palm commercialisation on intra-household dynamics in Imo State, Nigeria

The study assessed gender roles and intra-house hold impacts of oil palm commercialization on rural households in lmo state, Nigeria. Data were collected from 96 respondents through interview schedule with the aid of questionnaire and analysed using frequency distribution tables and percentages. Findings revealed that women were more highly involved in oil palm commercialization process than men. The impacts of commercialization on gender relations showed that the economic and social benefits accrue more to men than women and children. It resulted to increased income, improved household food and nutrition security, increased purchasing power, enhanced decision making and education among others, on different household members. The economic and social costs of oil palm commercialization led to loss in human capital such as less time for social activities, less time for child care, decreased leisure time. Factors perceived as constraints to commercialization of oil palm products were lack of capital, poor transport, storage and marketing facilities, insufficient labour, tedious nature of traditional processing method, poor standard measurement for the products, etc. It is recommended among others that research should develop appropriate technology for oil palm processing, government should provide working capital to farmers to help them build their capital base, etc. some implications for the agricultural extension agency were also noted.Keywords: gender roles, oil palm commercialisation, intra-household dynamicsJournal of Technology and Education in Nigeria Vol. 9(2) 2004: 14-24

Intra-Household Impacts of Small Farm Commercialization of Maize Enterprise in Abia State, Nigeria

This study was designed to analyze the impacts of small farm commercialization of maize enterprise on farming households in Abia State, Nigeria. Data were collected from 150 farming households through interview schedule and analysed using tables, percentages, a 4-scale Likert-type ranking method and ordinary least square regression technique. Findings reveal that males, females and children are actively involved in small farm maize production and commercialization, with women playing more active roles than the others. The impact of maize commercialization on the household members was found to be ambivalent. It led to a gain of financial capital (such as income, purchasing power, improved household food and nutrition security etc), and a loss of human capital (such as less time available for social activities, child care, education, leisure, etc.), with the effects being greatest on women than the men and children. The major determinants were found to include farm size, farming experience, volume of credit available and accessible, household size, expected profits and primary education. It is recommended among others that policy measures geared towards land tenure reforms, market development and micro credit provision by the State and other change agents should be vigorously pursued. Farmers are encouraged to form and maintain functional groups or cooperatives for easier access to credit and group marketing of produce. Int. J. Agric. Rural Dev. , 2003, 4: 59-67

Vitamin A Deficiency Disorders: International Efforts to Control A Preventable “Pox”

Visual symptoms (night blindness) of vitamin A deficiency (VAD) were among the earliest diet-related deficiencies documented. Knowledge of vitamin A chemistry, metabolism and deficiency consequences accrued rapidly during the first eight decades of the 20th century. A series of disorders were described in animals, including impaired growth, reproduction, epithelial integrity, and disease resistance that were relieved by consumption of both animal and plant sources of the vitamin. Identification of the intestinal beta-carotene cleavage enzyme in the laboratory of James Allen Olson was seminal to understanding the mechanism for formation of vitamin A from ingested carotenoids. WHO's 1990 estimate of about 40 million children annually with clinical eye signs of VAD was revised upward to 140-250 million at risk of vitamin A deficiency disorders (VADD) when epidemiological and clinical trials demonstrated morbidity and mortality risk even in the absence of ocular signs. Alternative methods for VAD status assessment and more reliable analytical techniques were developed, several in Dr. Olson's laboratory. The last decade has seen global progress in VADD control by expanding distribution of medicinal supplements, fortification of foods and dietary diversification through horticulture and education programs. Experience shows that achievements gained through narrowly focused interventions are fragile and vulnerable to national political and economic instability. Contextually relevant, community-centered strategies that improve household food and nutrition security and self-reliance are critical to sustaining international efforts to control the VADD "pox."

FOOD FOR THE CITIES: URBAN AGRICULTURE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

FOOD FOR THE CITIES: URBAN AGRICULTURE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Livestock Improve Household Food Security and Sustainability of Ethiopian Small Farms

ABSTRACT The role of livestock in determining the socio-economic status, food security and sustainability of smallholder mixed farms was studied during 1999 and 2000 in the Harar Highlands of Eastern Ethiopia. Community level information on farm households was collected using semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, and field observations. A well-being instrument was developed on the basis of community level data to rank the households into poor, medium, and well-to-do categories. Detailed characterization of the households in the three groups was carried out by an in-depth case study of individual farms followed by a wider scale formal survey. Community level interviews revealed that smallholders considered meeting household food requirements and maintaining soil fertility of farm plots most important for farm sustainability. The energy content of the food consumed by a farm family and the soil humus balance of annually cropped plots were used as proxy indicators for household food balance and soil fertility, respectively. Case study revealed that medium and well-to-do were high in household energy adequacy levels and positive in humus balance in annually cropped plots. Livestock accounted for 27% of the total household energy supply. In contrast, food supply in the poor category was 15% below the adequacy level and the field humus balance was negative. Poor had minimal livestock holding and livestock contributed only 2% of the total household energy supply. Results from the farm survey were similar to the case study. Medium and well-to-do had positive household food balance (180 ± 20.6%, and 186 ± 17.8%, respectively) and humus balance (385 kg/ha and 360 kg/ha, respectively) while poor had deficit household food balance (65 ± 15.8%) and negative soil humus balance (2365 kg/ha). The contribution of livestock to total household energy supply varied significantly (P ≤ 0.01) with the farm category, and accounted for 3.1 (0–5.7%), 23 ± 6.8% and 17 ± 7.9% of the total in the poor, medium and well-to-do, respectively. The results suggest that farms with less than one Tropical Livestock Units are not sustainable in the Harar Highlands of Eastern Ethiopia. Therefore, any agricultural development initiative in Ethiopia must include both crop and animal components for success.

Empowering women through cash relief in humanitarian contexts

This paper discusses the rationale behind cash transfer strategies as an alternative means of channelling resources to women and men in humanitarian contexts. It highlights key gender-related considerations that contribute to the success of the strategy. Food aid remains the largest part of United Nations appeals, but it is often delayed, inadequate in quantity and quality, and donated as a means of disposing of surpluses from developed countries. 1 Despite these criticisms, little consideration has been given to alternatives - more specifically, to cash - as a means of ensuring entitlements. This paper highlights the factors that should be considered in determining the appropriateness of cash interventions, and explores the potential of cash interventions directed to women for improving household food security and women's status in the household and community.

Evolution of Smallholder Mixed Farming Systems in the Harar Highlands of Ethiopia: The Shift Towards Trees and Shrubs

ABSTRACT The paper reports on the major changes observed in the farming systems of the Harar Highlands of southeastern Ethiopia, with special emphasis on the shift towards trees and shrubs. The study was undertaken during two time periods, 1985–1987 and 1997–1998 with the objectives of characterizing the production systems and their trends, and utilizing information so gained to guide research and extension activities in the study area. It was observed that the farming population had increased, land and large stock holding had decreased slightly, and that crop production was under increasing threats from various scourges, notably pests, weeds, and diseases. In the face of these changes, farmers continued to search for alternative strategies, and the major trend noted was the shift towards naturally growing and cultivated tree and shrub species in general and khat (Chata edulis (Vahl) Forsk. ex Endl.) in particular. This shift increased farm income and promoted crop-livestock integration, thereby improving household food security and enhancing sustainability of smallholder mixed farm systems. The importance of khat to the regional economy was also found to be growing both in the livelihood systems of the people in the study area, and in terms of foreign currency earnings. Despite the critics against the ever-increasing culture of khat, it is argued that the shift towards a khat-based farm economy was unavoidable, and, in the absence of other feasible alternatives, khat production and marketing would remain important to the livelihood systems of people in the study area. In view of this, the roles of the tree component in the farming systems should be duly considered in planning research and extension undertakings in the smallholder farms of the Harar Highlands of Ethiopia.

A critical examination of community-based responses to household food insecurity in Canada.

Over the past two decades, household food insecurity has emerged as a significant social problem and serious public health concern in the "First World." In Canada, communities initially responded by establishing ad hoc charitable food assistance programs, but the programs have become institutionalized. In the quest for more appropriate and effective responses, a variety of community development programs have recently been initiated. Some are designed to foster personal empowerment through self-help and mutual support; others promote community-level strategies to strengthen local control over food production. The capacity of current initiatives to improve household food security appears limited by their inability to overcome or alter the poverty that under-pins this problem. This may relate to the continued focus on food-based responses, the ad hoc and community-based nature of the initiatives, and their origins in publicly funded health and social service sectors.

Household food security in rural Uganda: A statistical analysis

No effective food security policy can be developed without knowledge of the dimensions of food insecurity problem at the household level. Using cross‐sectional data of a sample of 300 rural households from three districts in Uganda, Kiboga, Mbarara and Pallisa, this paper examines the extent of food insecurity at the household level. To this end, both objective and subjective measures of household food security are employed. The findings suggest that households derived over 30 percent, 40 percent and 60 percent of their protein, iron and food energy intakes, respectively, from starchy staples. They further suggest that food insecurity does exist in the sampled areas, with a higher percentage of caloric insecure households. Households developed several forms of coping strategies to minimise the consequences of food shortages with no public assistance. The major alternative strategies for improving household food security emerging from the analysis include advocacy, changes in the dietary consumption behaviour, promotion of nutrition education and improving effective access to productive resources.

The promising spread of sustainable agriculture in Asia

AbstractDespite great successes in increasing food production, Asia still faces enormous food security challenges. Most commentators agree that there will have to be increases in food production from existing agricultural land, but many are pessimistic about the future, judging likelihood of success on the basis of past performance of ‘modern’ agricultural development. Sustainable agriculture, though, offers entirely new opportunities, by emphasising the productive values of natural, social and human capital, all assets that Asian countries either have in abundance or that can be regenerated at relatively low financial cost.This paper sets out an assets‐based model of agricultural systems, together with a typology of eight approaches for sustainable agriculture improvements. In the 16 projects/initiatives spread across eight countries that are analysed, some 2.86 million households have substantially improved total food production on 4.93 million hectares, resulting in greatly improved household food security. Proportional yield increases are greatest in rainfed systems, but irrigated systems have seen small cereal yield increases combined with added production from additional productive system components (such as fish in rice, vegetables on dykes). The additional positive impacts on natural, social and human capital are also helping to build the assets base so as to sustain these improvements in the future.This analysis indicates that sustainable agriculture can deliver large increases in food production in Asia. But spreading these to much larger numbers of farm households will not be easy. It will require fundamental policy reform.

FARMER SUPPORT AND HOUSEHOLD FOOD PRODUCTION IN SOUTH AFRICA'S DEVELOPING AREAS / NAVORSINGSNOTA: BOERE ONDERSTEUNING EN HUISHOUDINGS SE VOEDSELPRODUKSIE IN SUID-AFRIKA SE ONTWIKKELENDE GEBIEDE

This research note considers the relationship between various support services to farmers and food production as well as household food security of rural households with access to communal crop and grazing land in the former “homelands”. The Farmer Support Programme (“FSP”) was implemented in selected target areas in the developing areas (“homelands”) of South Africa since 1987, with the specific aim to address the constraints faced by farmers in these areas. A three year evaluation programme of the FSP in one area Lebowa, show that the farmer support programme has improved the food security situation in these areas and contributed to a better livelihood for thousands of households in rural Lebowa. The results also confirms that the elements of the support programme can, at least partly, be related to the increase in maize production and the improved household food security situation in Lebowa.