Improve Depth Perception Research Articles

Real-time ultrasound AR 3D visualization toward better topological structure perception for hepatobiliary surgery.

Ultrasound serves as a crucial intraoperative imaging tool for hepatobiliary surgeons, enabling the identification of complex anatomical structures like blood vessels, bile ducts, and lesions. However, the reliance on manual mental reconstruction of 3D topologies from 2D ultrasound images presents significant challenges, leading to a pressing need for tools to assist surgeons with real-time identification of 3D topological anatomy. We propose a real-time ultrasound AR 3D visualization method for intraoperative 2D ultrasound imaging. Our system leverages backward alpha blending to integrate multi-planar ultrasound data effectively. To ensure continuity between 2D ultrasound planes, we employ spatial smoothing techniques to interpolate the widely spaced ultrasound planes. A dynamic 3D transfer function is also developed to enhance spatial representation through color differentiation. Comparative experiments involving our AR visualization of 3D ultrasound, alongside AR visualization of 2D ultrasound and 2D visualization of 3D ultrasound, demonstrated that the proposed method significantly reduced operational time(110.25 ± 27.83s compared to 292 ± 146.63s and 365.25 ± 131.62s), improved depth perception and comprehension of complex topologies, contributing to reduced pressure and increased personal satisfaction among users. Quantitative experimental results and feedback from both novice and experienced physicians highlight our system's exceptional ability to enhance the understanding of complex topological anatomy. This improvement is crucial for accurate ultrasound diagnosis and informed surgical decision-making, underscoring the system's clinical applicability.

Improving Depth Perception in Immersive Media Devices by Addressing Vergence-Accommodation Conflict.

Recently, immersive media devices have seen a boost in popularity. However, many problems still remain. Depth perception is a crucial part of how humans behave and interact with their environment. Convergence and accommodation are two physiological mechanisms that provide important depth cues. However, when humans are immersed in virtual environments, they experience a mismatch between these cues. This mismatch causes users to feel discomfort while also hindering their ability to fully perceive object distances. To address the conflict, we have developed a technique that encompasses inverse blurring into immersive media devices. For the inverse blurring, we utilize the classical Wiener deconvolution approach by proposing a novel technique that is applied without the need for an eye-tracker and implemented in a commercial immersive media device. The technique's ability to compensate for the vergence-accommodation conflict was verified through two user studies aimed at reaching and spatial awareness, respectively. The two studies yielded a statistically significant 36% and 48% error reduction in user performance to estimate distances, respectively. Overall, the work done demonstrates how visual stimuli can be modified to allow users to achieve a more natural perception and interaction with the virtual environment.

Оцінка показників стереоендоскопічних систем в ринології

This research examines the advantages and disadvantages of 3D endoscopy compared to traditional 2D endoscopy for sinus surgery. It has been found that 3D endoscopy significantly improves depth perception, the brightness of the surgical field, and intraoperative visualization, making it particularly useful for training and understanding anatomy. Despite these benefits, 3D endoscopy can cause discomfort in surgeons, including dizziness, eye strain, and headaches. The development of automated visualization systems based on stereo cameras can enhance procedural accuracy. The use of personalized physical models created through rapid prototyping increases the effectiveness of training systems. However, the need to wear 3D glasses and the difficulty in cleaning the lenses remain issues. Future prospects include the application of such systems in telemedicine services for remote consultations.

Light field imaging technology for virtual reality content creation: A review

AbstractThe light field (LF) imaging technique can capture 3D scene information in 4D by recording both 2D intensity and 2D direction of incoming light rays. Due to this capability, LF has shown a great interest in virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) for enhanced immersion, improved depth perception and reconstruction of realistic 3D environments. This paper presents a comprehensive review of LF imaging technology and other approaches used for VR content creation. The applications of LF technology beyond VR and AR are also discussed. The challenges and limitations of other approaches for VR content creation are examined. State‐of‐the‐art research has focused on how VR experiences benefit from LF technology and identified the challenges to creating comfortable, immersive and realistic VR content such as (1) image size and resolution, (2) processing speed, (3) precise calibration and (4) depth reconstruction. Recommendations that can be considered for creating immersive VR content are provided to enhance user experience. These recommendations aim to contribute to developing more comfortable and realistic VR content, extending the potential applications of LF imaging technology in diverse fields.

Evaluation of depth perception in crowded volumes

Depth perception in volumetric visualization plays a crucial role in the understanding and interpretation of volumetric data. Numerous visualization techniques, many of which rely on physically based optical effects, promise to improve depth perception but often do so without considering camera movement or the content of the volume. As a result, the findings from previous studies may not be directly applicable to crowded volumes, where a large number of contained structures disrupts spatial perception. Crowded volumes therefore require special analysis and visualization tools with sparsification capabilities. Interactivity is an integral part of visualizing and exploring crowded volumes, but has received little attention in previous studies. To address this gap, we conducted a study to assess the impact of different rendering techniques on depth perception in crowded volumes, with a particular focus on the effects of camera movement. The results show that depth perception considering camera motion depends much more on the content of the volume than on the chosen visualization technique. Furthermore, we found that conventional non-photorealistic rendering techniques, which have often performed poorly in previous studies, showed comparable performance to modern photorealistic techniques in our study. The source code for the visualization system, survey, and analysis, as well as the data set used in the study and the participants’ responses, have been made publicly available.

Comparison of 3D and 2D laparoscopy: Initial experience of perioperative outcomes and clinical assessment

IntroductionThis study was designed to compare three-dimensional (3D) laparoscopy and conventional two-dimensional (2D) laparoscopy in surgical performance and clinical assessment during laparoscopic radical hysterectomy with pelvic lymphadenectomy (LRHND) for treating early-stage cervical cancer. Material and methodsIn this study, we included 67 consecutive patients underwent LRHND for treating early-stage cervical cancer by the experienced laparoscopic surgeons between August 2018 and December 2020. amongst these patients, 32 patients underwent 3D laparoscopy (2D group) and 35 patients underwent 2D laparoscopy (2D group). Demographic data, clinical and surgical parameters were obtained from each patient. An end-of-operation questionnaire was administered regarding subjective perception of 3D laparoscopy system. ResultsPatient characteristics, including age, BMI, FIGO stage, and histology, were comparable between the two groups. Compared with 2D imaging system, 3D system significantly shortened the operation time, especially bilateral lymph node dissection time. Blood loss was lower in 3D group compared with 2D group. There were no significant differences regarding pelvic nodes retrieved, incidence of complications, hospital stay, the recovery time of bowel, abdominal drainage fluid, hospitalization costs and visual symptoms. In addition, 3D system significantly improved depth perception and precision, and reduced surgical strain and eye strain for surgeon. No statistical difference was observed in visual symptoms and adverse events between the two groups. The surgeon was more willing to accept 3D laparoscopy. ConclusionThe 3D laparoscopy is safe, feasible and comfortable, with obvious advantage in depth perception, precision and surgical strain. It triggered no increase in the complications and adverse events.

AdaptiveStereo: Depth estimation from adaptive structured light

Recovering depth with active stereo methods has become an important approach to three-dimensional perception. However, when the properties of the measurement scene change, projecting predesigned structured light can cause improper exposure and defocus blur on some object surfaces. To address these problems, we propose an active stereo depth perception method called AdaptiveStereo, based on adaptive structured light (ASL). The core idea is to use prior depth information to generate optimal structured light for different measurement scenes, ensuring even illumination of the object’s surface and thereby improving depth perception results. To this end, firstly, a novel ASL encoding scheme based on speckle pattern is designed. Then, we construct an adaptive structured light generation model (ASL-GM) to automatically generate the optimal structured light. Finally, depth perception is realized by using the active stereo matching network with adaptive guidance (AGS-Net). Compared with mainstream depth perception methods, the evaluation results show that our method has higher accuracy, and can obtain better depth perception results.

Formulating a Novel Physical Equation to Quantify Interocular Visual Acuity Influence

ABSTRACT The limitation of conventional visual acuity assessment, which primarily focuses on individual eye performance (monocular visual acuity tests). This study addresses this limitation by emphasizing the importance of binocular vision, where both eyes work together. Binocular vision provides numerous advantages, such as improved depth perception, a wider field of view, reduced visual fatigue, and binocular summation. The article introduces a new mathematical model based on the physics of constructive interference in light waves and the anatomy of visual nerves. This model yields an equation that quantifies how weakness in one eye affects the visual acuity of the other. By analyzing the correlation between the rates of visual weakness in each eye and the corresponding distances, utilizing the Snellen 6-meter test, valuable insights are gained into the complex interplay between eye deficiencies and their collective impact on overall visual acuity. The equations derived from this study can have significant implications for eye care professionals, clinicians, and patients, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of visual impairments and enriching the field of optics and vision science.

Robotic Surgery: A Comprehensive Review of the Literature and Current Trends.

Robotic surgery (RS) is an evolution of minimally invasive surgery that combines medical science, robotics, and engineering. The first robots approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) were the Da Vinci Surgical System and the ZEUS Robotic Surgical System, which have been improving over time. Through the decades, the equipment applied to RS had undergone a wide transformation as a response to the development of new techniques and facilities for the assembly and implementation of the own. RS has revolutionized the field of urology, enabling surgeons to perform complex procedures with greater precision and accuracy, and many other surgical specialties such as gynecology, general surgery, otolaryngology, cardiothoracic surgery, and neurosurgery.Several benefits, such as a better approach to the surgical site, a three-dimensional image that improves depth perception, and smaller scars, enhance range of motion, allowing the surgeon to conduct more complicated surgical operations, and reduced postoperative complications have made robotic-assisted surgery an increasingly popular approach. However, some points like the cost of surgical procedures, equipment-instrument, and maintenance are important aspects to consider. Machine learning will likely have a role to play in surgical training shortly through "automated performance metrics," where algorithms observe and "learn" individual surgeons' techniques, assess performance, and anticipate surgical outcomes with the potential to individualize surgical training and aid decision-making in real time.

OWN EXPERIENCES IN THE APPLICATION OF INTRAOPERATIVE 3D SPATIAL IMAGING IN THE ENDOSCOPIC SURGERY OF THE PARANASAL SINUSES

Introduction: Intraoperative spatial imaging using a high-resolution 3D camera is a state-ofthe-art technique applied to endoscopic paranasal sinus surgery. It enables better visualization of the surgical site, improves depth perception and facilitates tissue identification. All 3D endoscopy capabilities are still under review. The purpose of this study is to compare analogous endoscopic surgeries performed with 3D technique and those performed with traditional 2D technique based on the analysis of length of surgery, blood loss, occurrence of intraoperative complications and hospital stay time. Material: The material included 346 patients who underwent endoscopic paranasal sinus surgery with unilateral or bilateral sinus opening. In case of 152 patients, corrective surgery of the nasal septum was additionally performed. The patients were divided into two groups (2D group and 3D group) comprising 173 patients each, who underwent paranasal sinus opening using 2D and 3D endoscopic visualization. Each group was divided into four subgroups: the first were patients after bilateral paranasal sinus surgery (PSS), the second were patients after bilateral endoscopic paranasal sinus surgery and nasal septal correction surgery (PSS+NS), the third were patients after unilateral paranasal sinus surgery (UPSS), and the fourth group was patients after unilateral endoscopic paranasal sinus surgery and nasal septum correction surgery (UPSS+NS). Methods: The surgery was carried out using a TipCam 3D endoscope from Storz (Germany), 18 mm in length, 4 mm in diameter, with 30° optics, with an integrated camera capable of transmitting 3D images, as well as classic 2D endoscopes, 16 mm in length, 4 mm in diameter and 30° optics, along with a video track and instrument set. Patients underwent unilateral or bilateral endoscopic surgery with opening of the maxillary sinuses, frontal sinuses, anterior and posterior ethmoid as well as corrective surgery of the nasal septum. Patients underwent unilateral or bilateral endoscopic surgery with opening of the maxillary sinuses, frontal sinuses, anterior and posterior ethmoid as well as corrective surgery of the nasal septum. Results: The length of surgery were as follows in the 2D group: 2D/PSS+NS group — 107 min. (±22); 2D/PSS group — 95 min (±24); 2D/UPSS+NS group — 68 min (±21); 2D/UPSS group — 53 min (±14); The length of surgery in the 3D group: 3D/PSS+NS group — 91 min. (±17); 3D/PSS group — 83 min (±20); 3D/UPSS+NS group — 69 min (±15); 2D/UPSS group — 49 min (±10); Among the complications were early and late postoperative bleeding, eyelid or orbital hematomas, and eyelid edema. There were 17 complications in the 2D group (9.82%), and 7 complications in the 3D group (4.05%). Conclusions: It was found that 3D endoscopic surgeries significantly reduced the length of surgery, especially in serious bilateral paranasal sinus surgeries. and influenced a decrease in perioperative complications. 3D endoscopic surgeries had no significant effect on the amount of blood loss and the length of the patient’s stay at the Clinic.

Benefit of stereoscopic volume rendering for the identification of pediatric pulmonary vein stenosis from CT angiography.

The use of three-dimensional (3D) technologies in medical practice is increasing; however, its use is largely untested. One 3D technology, stereoscopic volume-rendered 3D display, can improve depth perception. Pulmonary vein stenosis (PVS) is a rare cardiovascular pathology, often diagnosed by computed tomography (CT), where volume rendering may be useful. Depth cues may be lost when volume rendered CT is displayed on regular screens instead of 3D displays. The objective of this study was to determine whether the 3D stereoscopic display of volume-rendered CT improved perception compared to standard monoscopic display, as measured by PVS diagnosis. CT angiograms (CTAs) from 18 pediatric patients aged 3 weeks to 2 years were volume rendered and displayed with and without stereoscopic display. Patients had 0 to 4 pulmonary vein stenoses. Participants viewed the CTAs in 2 groups with half on monoscopic and half on stereoscopic display and the converse a minimum of 2 weeks later, and their diagnoses were recorded. A total of 24 study participants, comprised of experienced staff cardiologists, cardiovascular surgeons and radiologists, and their trainees viewed the CTAs and assessed the presence and location of PVS. Cases were classified as simple (2 or fewer lesions) or complex (3 or more lesions). Overall, there were fewer type 2 errors in diagnosis for stereoscopic display than standard display, an insignificant difference (p = 0.095). There was a significant decrease in type 2 errors for complex multiple lesion cases (≥3) vs simpler cases (p = 0.027) and improvement in localization of pulmonary veins (p = 0.011). Subjectively, 70% of participants stated that stereoscopy was helpful in the identification of PVS. The stereoscopic display did not result in significantly decreased errors in PVS diagnosis but was helpful for more complex cases.

Does High-Definition 3-Dimensional Imaging Improve Orientation During Endoscopic Transsphenoidal Surgery? A Prospective Trial.

Endoscopy has evolved as the standard visualization tool for endonasal transsphenoidal resection of sellar lesions. The most widely used 2-dimensional (2D) endoscopes harbor the problem of limited depth perception. Therefore, 3-dimensional (3D) endoscopes have been developed to enable depth perception through a stereoscopic view. To evaluate the impact of high-definition (HD) 2D vs 3D HD endoscopes on spatial orientation within the sphenoid sinus. In this prospective single-center study, 21 patients have been investigated (2021-2022). Eleven standardized anatomic landmarks, which were preoperatively defined on neuronavigation imaging, were intraoperatively targeted with a navigation probe using either 2D HD or 3D HD endoscopes for visualization. Overall, 3D HD endoscopes provided a statistically significant higher accuracy of identification of sphenoid sinus landmarks (median deviation: 5.2 mm vs 4.2 mm, P < .001). In detail: tuberculum sellae (3.0 mm vs 4.3 mm, P = .047), most anterior point of sella (3.3 mm vs 4.8 mm, P = .049), and clivus indentation (3.8 mm vs 5.3 mm, P = .035). Anatomic variations such as a complex sphenoid sinus configuration had no influence on identifying sphenoid sinus landmarks. According to our data, stereoscopic 3D HD endoscopy enhances intraoperative orientation by improved depth perception within the sphenoid sinus. This may add to the safety of endoscopic skull base procedures, especially in extended approaches and cases with distorted anatomy.

Quality assessment and comparison of two- and three-dimensional YouTube videos as additional educational tools for cataract surgery: "METAVERSE".

To compare the content and quality of 3D YouTube videos with 2Ds as additional educational tools for phacoemulsification surgery. This cross-sectional study included 2D and side-by-side 3D phacoemulsification videos found on YouTube by searching for "phacoemulsification," "phaco," and "cataract." Data was collected on video length (min), time since upload (days), number of views, likes, dislikes, cataract type, chop technique, and visualization system. Video popularity and interaction were calculated by video power index, interaction index, and viewing rate. Two senior ophthalmologists (SOs) and two ophthalmology residents (ORs) evaluated videos using the DISCERN, global quality score (GQS), and usefulness scoring systems. Inter-rater reliability was assessed using intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC). A total of 457 videos were screened, with 85 in 2D and 85 in 3D deemed appropriate for analysis. 2D videos received significantly more views, likes, dislikes, days since upload, video power index, and viewing rate than 3Ds (p < 0.001). Video length and interaction index in 3D videos were significantly greater than in 2Ds (p < 0.001). All video scoring systems revealed that 3D videos outperformed 2Ds in ORs (p < 0.05). ICC confirmed good inter-rater reliability agreement even at the lowest value (SOs: 0.924, 95% CI, 0.910-0.937; ORs: 0.892, 95% CI, 0.878-0.908). 3D YouTube videos as additional educational tools could help not only SOs but also ORs fully comprehend the breadth and depth of ocular surgeries, particularly phacoemulsification, by improving depth perception. They can also be used to review previously learned procedures, observe new ones, and recall old ones.

The Expanding Uses of Medical Extended Reality in the Cardiac Catheterization Laboratory: Pre-procedural Planning, Intraprocedural Guidance, and Intraprocedural Navigation

The use of innovative imaging practices in the field of interventional cardiology and electrophysiology has led to significant progress in both diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities. 3D reconstructions of 2D images allows a proceduralist to develop a superior understanding of patient anatomy. Medical extended reality (MXR) technologies employ 3D interactive images for the user to improve depth perception and spatial awareness. Although MXR procedural navigation is a relatively new concept, the potential for use within interventional cardiology and EP is significant with the eventual goal of improving patient outcomes and reducing patient harm. This review article will discuss the current landscape of MXR use in the catheterization lab including pre-procedural planning, intraprocedural planning and intraprocedural guidance in diagnostic cardiac catheterization, valvar and coronary interventions, electrophysiology studies, and device implants.

The use of three-dimensional endoscope in transnasal skull base surgery: A single-center experience from China.

ObjectiveThe development of skull base surgery in the past decade has been influenced by advances in visualization techniques; recently, due to such improvements, 3D endoscopes have been widely used. Herein, we address its effect for transnasal endoscopic skull base surgery.MethodsA total of 63 patients who under endoscopic endonasal surgery (EES) with 3-D endoscope were retrospectively reviewed, including pituitary adenomas, craniopharyngiomas, meningiomas, Rathke’s cleft cysts, and chordomas. According to different lesions, transsellar approach (24 cases), transsphenoidal–transtuberculum approach (14 cases), transclival approach (6 cases), and transpterygoid approach (19 cases) were selected.ResultsTotal removal of tumors was achieved in 56 patients (88.9%) and subtotal removal in 7 cases (11.1%). Complications included diabetes insipidus in seven patients (11.1%), cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leakage in two patients (3.2%), major vascular injury occurred in one patient (1.6%), cranial nerve injury in nine patients (14.3%), and meningitis in two patients (3.2%). There was no mortality in the series. All patients recovered and were back to normal daily life, and no tumor recurrence or delayed CSF leakage was detected during the follow-up (2–13 months, mean 7.59 months).ConclusionsVia 3D EES, it improved depth perception and preserved important neurovascular tissue when tumors were removed, which is important for improving the operative prognosis.

Steerable Flexible Laparoscope to Facilitate Camera Guidance During Minimally Invasive Procedures

Abstract In conventional laparoscopy, the field of view of the surgeon is limited. Angled laparoscopes enable the observation of surrounding structures, however, to change the viewing perspective on a specific object, permanent repositioning and rotation of the shaft is required. In this paper, a demonstrator of a steerable flexible laparoscope is presented, enabling the user to intuitively adjust the perspective onto an object by means of a single control element. The laparoscope provides a viewing angle of ± 50° at 50 mm working distance. In first tests, the presented laparoscope showed advantages regarding intuitiveness of the control, easier handling, and improved depth perception.

Robotic surgery in gynaecology: Scientific Impact Paper No. 71 (July 2022).

The use of robotic-assisted keyhole surgery in gynaecology has expanded in recent years owing to technical advances. These include 3D viewing leading to improved depth perception, limitation of tremor, potential for greater precision and discrimination of tissues, a shorter learning curve and improved comfort for surgeons compared with conventional keyhole and open abdominal surgery. Robotic-assisted keyhole surgery, compared with conventional keyhole surgery, improves surgical performance without increasing operating time, minimises blood loss and intra- or postoperative complications, while reducing the need to revert to abdominal surgery. Moreover, surgeons using a robot experience fewer skeletomuscular problems of their own in the short and long term than those operating without a robot as an additional tool. This Scientific Impact Paper looks at the use of a robot in different fields of gynaecological surgery. A robot could be considered safe and a more effective surgical tool than conventional keyhole surgery for women who have to undergo complex gynaecology surgery or have associated medical issues such as body-mass index (BMI) at 30 kg/m2 or above or lung problems. The introduction of the use of robots in keyhole surgery has resulted in a decrease in the number of traditional open surgeries and the risk of conversion to open surgery after traditional keyhole surgery; both of which should be considered when examining the cost-benefit of using a robot. Limitations of robotic-assisted surgery remain the associated higher costs. In womb cancer surgery there is good evidence that introducing robotics into the service improves outcomes for women and may reduce costs.

Phacoemulsification in patients with corneal opacities using slit illumination of the surgical microscope.

Performing phacoemulsification in eyes with corneal opacities is challenging even with expert surgeons. Several techniques have been described to improve intraoperative visualization through opacified corneas. This retrospective interventional case series included 10 eyes of 10 patients with coexisting senile cataract and corneal opacity who underwent phacoemulsification with intraocular lens (IOL) implantation under slit illumination of the surgical microscope. Uneventful phacoemulsification with IOL implantation was achieved in all eyes without intraoperative complications. Slit illumination reduced the light scattering and reflection from the corneal opacity, enhanced the red reflex, and improved depth perception simultaneously in different steps of phacoemulsification. Phacoemulsification was safely performed in eyes with corneal opacity under slit illumination of the surgical microscope. It can be considered as a viable option for improving intraoperative visualization in patients with corneal opacities without additional instrumentation.

Antenatal diagnosis of congenital heart disease by 3D ultrasonography using spatiotemporal image correlation with HDlive Flow and HDlive Flow silhouette rendering modes.

This pictorial review describes the assessment of a great variety of types of congenital heart disease by three-dimensional ultrasonography with spatiotemporal image correlation using HDlive and the HDlive Flow silhouette rendering mode. These technologies provide fetal heart surface patterns by using a fixed virtual light source that propagates into the tissues, permitting a detailed reconstruction of the heart structures. In this scenario, ultrasound operators can freely select a better light source position to enhance the anatomical details of the fetal heart. HDlive and the HDlive Flow silhouette rendering mode improve depth perception and the resolution of anatomic cardiac details and blood vessel walls compared to standard two-dimensional ultrasonography.

2D versus 3D Endoscopy: Head-to-Head Comparison in a Simulated Model of Endoscopic Endonasal Dural Suturing.

Objective Endonasal dural suturing (EDS) has been reported to decrease the incidence of cerebrospinal fluid fistula. This technique requires handling of single-shaft instrumentation in the narrow endonasal corridor. It has been proposed that three-dimensional (3D) endoscopes were associated with improved depth perception. In this study, we sought to perform a comparison of two-dimensional (2D) versus 3D endoscopy by assessing surgical proficiency in a simulated model of EDS. Materials and Methods Twenty-six participants subdivided into groups based on previous endoscopic experience were asked to pass barbed sutures through preset targets with either 2D (Storz Hopkins II) or 3D (Storz TIPCAM) endoscopes on 3D-printed simulation model. Surgical precision and procedural time were measured. All participants completed a Likert scale questionnaire. Results Novice, intermediate, and expert groups took 11.0, 8.7, and 5.7 minutes with 2D endoscopy and 10.9, 9.0, and 7.6 minutes with 3D endoscopy, respectively. The average deviation for novice, intermediate, and expert groups (mm) was 5.5, 4.4, and 4.3 with 2D and 6.6, 4.6, and 3.0 with 3D, respectively. No significant difference in procedural time or accuracy was found in 2D versus 3D endoscopy. 2D endoscopic visualization was preferred by the majority of expert/intermediate participants, while 3D endoscopic visualization by the novice group. Conclusion In this pilot study, there was no statistical difference in procedural time or accuracy when utilizing 2D versus 3D endoscopes. While it is possible that widespread familiarity with 2D endoscopic equipment has biased this study, preliminary analysis suggests that 3D endoscopy offers no definitive advantage over 2D endoscopy in this simulated model of EDS.