Imphal Valley Research Articles

Psychological effects of Manipur violence among the internally displaced persons residing in relief camps across Imphal valley of Manipur – A cross-sectional study

ABSTRACT Background: Conflict and violence lead to the displacement of millions of people. A significant number of those who are exposed to potentially traumatic events, such as conflict and violence, may develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other mental health or behavioral conditions. This study plans to estimate the prevalence and associated factors of PTSD and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) among internally displaced persons residing in different relief camps during Manipur violence. Materials and Methods: Community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among internally displaced persons (IDPs) residing in relief camps located in Imphal East District of Manipur using a pretested, semistructured, validated questionnaire consisting of PTSD checklist for DSM 5 (PCL-5) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorders Assessment tool (GAD-7). The study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee. Results: More than half (65.8%) of the respondents were found to have PTSD. One-fourth of the respondents (24.8%) were found to have moderate anxiety, and 15.2% have severe anxiety. Female gender, age between 20 and 59 years, marital status, and employment status after conflict were found to be significantly associated with PTSD. Marital status and witnessed destruction of property were found to be significantly associated with GAD. Around 3/4th of the respondents (235, 75.8%) reported witnessing destruction and burning of property, and 29 (9.4%) reported witnessing death of family members or friends. Around 58 (18.7%) were currently separated from family, and 25 (8.1%) had experienced some kind of trauma at the time of displacement. Conclusion: A majority of the participants have PTSD, whereas 15.2% have severe anxiety. Efforts and interventions should be made to improve the psychological well-being through psychological support and counseling from mental health professionals and provision of vocational training for income generation for the IDPs.

Agricultural land suitability analysis in Manipur, India using GIS and AHP

This article aims to identify potential sites for agricultural use in the state of Manipur of north east India by employing the analytic hierarchy process in a geographic information system environment in conjunction with the use of remote sensing and soil data. Within the analytic hierarchy process, each terrain variable underwent a pairwise comparison and criteria weights were assigned according to their relative importance. Eight variables were selected and used in land suitability analysis for agriculture. It was found that Manipur had 57% (12,660 km2) of its total geographical area suitable for agriculture. However, 8126 km2 (37%) and 1374 km2 (6%) of the total geographical area was currently and permanently unsuitable land respectively. The distribution of suitable land varied greatly, with highly, moderately and marginally suitable land covering only 8%, 16% and 33% respectively of the total geographical area. The highly suitable agricultural land is predominantly concentrated in the Imphal valley (70%), though 90% of moderately suitable and 96% of marginally suitable land also exist in the hills. The hilly areas constitute 96% and 97% respectively of currently unsuitable and permanently unsuitable land in the state. Suitable land comprises of land with low to medium altitude, gentle to moderate slopes, soil of fine or acceptable quality, and with minimal flood risk. Unsuitable lands tend to be diametrically opposite to these attributes with steep hill slopes. The nature of distribution of land suitability types influences the agricultural pattern in Manipur. Agriculture in the hill areas comprises mainly of shifting cultivation on hill slopes, whereas in the valley region it is irrigated and permanent. This analysis of Manipur has a wider applicability since the shifting cultivation-irrigated agriculture combination is similar to that which exists across much of the highlands of South East Asia.

Assessment of physical properties of soil under various agricultural land in Imphal valley of Manipur, India

Assessment of physical properties of soil under various agricultural land in Imphal valley of Manipur, India

Manipur Violence- A Geo-Political Analysis

Manipur is one of the states of North -Eastern India where many cultural arts originate like polo and Manipuri dance. Today, communal violence and ethnic clashes are common and about 252 were killed during ethnic conflict May, 2023 to till now. Here, 33 communities inhabiting the valleys and hills of the state has a long history of violent and deadly clashes. The violence outbreak in Manipur due to directing the Manipur High Court to pursue a 10 years old recommendation to grant Schedule Tribe status to the non- tribal Meitei community. It is bounded by the states of Nagaland to the north, Mizoram the south, Assam to the East and the boundary of Myanmar to East. The total land of the state is 22,347 sq km. It is like a football stadium with Imphal valley representing the center of the playground and the surrounding hills its galleries. The main objective has to study about the Manipur violence and also to find out the solution of the conflict. The research is mainly based on secondary data. The situation of the state is dangerous. If the state government do not control the situation, a day will come a new slogan of separate country will echo in the North Eastern India.

Macroseismic Study of 4th January 2016, Manipur Earthquake, and its Implications

Abstract An earthquake of magnitude 6.7 M (Latitude 24.834N; Longitude 93.656E) on the Richter scale rocked in the Noney area, Tamenglong district, Manipur on 4th January 2016. The shock was strongly felt in most parts of the Northeastern states of India viz. Manipur, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Assam, and its neighboring countries Myanmar and Bangladesh. Macroseismic study was conducted to assess the intensity of ground motion and related damages caused by the earthquake. The damage incidences were mainly reported in structures constructed over the alluvial fill material. Deformations and development of ground fissures were observed in the epicentral tracts of Manipur and liquefaction phenomenon was observed in the Silchar area Assam. The study revealed that higher damage was confined to the area around Noney, Kabuikhullen, Nungba, Leimakhong, and Imphal valley areas in Manipur and Silchar town areas in Assam. Based on field observation, the degree of damage to building structures, and data gathered from the local population using the standard questionnaire, different intensity values were assigned to each locality. Isoseismal map was prepared by drawing the boundaries between different intensity areas at MSK-64 scale. The result indicates that the intensity was within the range of IV to VII. The maximum intensity was found VII in parts of Imphal, Tamenglong, and Silchar and very close to the epicentral tract area of Noney; and lowest intensity IV was observed in other parts of the northeastern states around Dimapur and Kohima in Nagaland state. The location of the epicenter of main shock (M 6.7) was at the intersection of the two major lineaments trending to ENE-WSW and NW-SE. The trend and shape of isoseismals drawn on seismotectonic/geological maps are elliptical along ENE-WSW direction and are found more closely spaced in the north and southern parts of the affected area. The elliptical nature of the isoseismals indicates that this seismic event was caused by movement along a linear surface. Furthermore, the orientation of elliptical isoseismals with a major axis trend in an ENE-WSW direction is almost parallel to the ENE-WSW trend of major lineament/fault in the area. As a result, the ENE-WSW lineament/fault trend appears to be the causative fault for this quake. In addition, one of the nodal plane (NP2) striking 83°, with dip 81° and slip (rake) 38° obtained from fault plane solution USGS shows a similar trend to the direction of generated elliptical isoseismals pattern confirming the event ocurred along a major tectonic lineament in a strike-slip mechanism.

Geochemistry of the Transitional beds between Disang and Barail Successions of the Imphal Valley, Indo-Myanmar Ranges

Major and trace element concentrations were studied from the tansitional beds between Disang and Barail Successions of the Imphal valley, Indo-Myanmar Ranges. Various major and trace element ratios and discrinant diagrams were used to descipher paleoclimate, paleo-redox condition and sedimentary depositional environment of the Disang-Barail Transitional beds. SiO2 vs Al2O3+K2O+ Na2O diagram and Rb/Sr ratios indicates that paleoclimate during the deposition of the sediments changed from arid to semi-arid and humid climate. Ni/Co, V/Cr, V/(Ni+V), V/Sc ratios suggest that these sediments were deposited in oxic, suboxic to anoxic conditions. V/(Ni+V) vs V/Cr diagram suggests paleo-redox environment dominated by sub-reduction to oxidization during Disang –Barail Transitional deposition. The sediments were deposited in transitional to marine depositional environment.

Seismic risk assessment for the North Eastern Region of India by integrating seismic hazard and social vulnerability

ABSTRACT The present study aims at conducting a comprehensive seismic risk assessment for the North Eastern Region of India at regional and sub-regional levels by integrating probabilistic seismic hazard and social vulnerability assessments. Bedrock-level peak ground acceleration varied from 0.14 to 0.69g for the return period of 475 years. Using PCA, the social vulnerability index (SVI) was generated considering district-level socioeconomic indicators. Built environment quality, illiteracy, access to amenities, dependent population, and employment opportunities contributed tohigh SVI. Most vulnerable districts were concentrated in the Brahmaputrafloodplains, Tripura fold belt, and Imphal valley. At the regional level,significant parts of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tripura lie inmoderate to very high-risk zones. At the sub-regional level, Nagaland accountsfor the highest proportion of areas in high to very high-risk zones. The findings will aid site-specific resilient infrastructure design, disaster risk reduction, and effective resource allocation for the risk-prone areas.

Importance of continuous monitoring GPS permanent station at Multi-Parametric Geophysical Observatory (MPGO), IMPHAL, Manipur (India)

GPS measurements are precise enough to allow a determination of tectonic motion within a few years. This can be made using a network of permanent stations, dynamically defined, using an inertial reference frame that moves with the geo-center. Comparing the position of these points over time, it’s possible to compute the velocity and direction of the plate motion. The goal of this work is to describe the hypothetical tectonic motion using a network of GPS permanent stations located approximately in the center of Imphal Valley. We report data processing results of GPS measurements of crustal deformation at Imphal, Manipur. The results suggest that the site of Imphal valley is not located on the Indian plate. The site is actually located on the Burma plate. Keywords: GPS, Crustal deformation, Imphal Valley, MPGO.

Weathering and Source Rock Characteristics of the Upper Disang Sedimentary Rock of the Indo-Myanmar Ranges, NE India

The Eocene Disang Group occupies a vast area of Manipur and extends in parts of Tista and Tirap valley in Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland Hills, and small portions of North Cachar Hills (Assam) and continues up to Chin Ranges of Myanmar Ranges. The Disang Group is characterized by a group of monotonous sequences of dark grey to black splintery shales and has intercalation of siltstones and light to brownish grey, fine- to medium-grained sandstones of especially in the upper horizons, occasionally giving rise to rhythmic character. ICV vs. CIA, K2O/Na2O vs. Fe2O3+MgO and TiO2 vs. Al2O3 diagrams reveal that sediments from the Tista and Tirap river valleys in Arunachal Pradesh and towards the central portion of the Naga Hills in Nagaland are more weathered and recycled than sediments from the study area (most of Imphal valley or Manipur valley in Manipur). The sediments for the study area were dominantly derived from the unweathered rising Indo-Myanmar Ranges. The pre-Himalayan rocks might have been supplied sediments for the Disang Group. Sediments were also possibly derived from the uplifted fold thrust belt of Myanmar’s landmass comprising of igneous and metamorphic basement complex with older sedimentary sequences with minor contributions of detritus from Mishmi Hills region lying to the NE of the Arunachal Pradesh. The Disang sediments were deposited in different sedimentary environments from tidal flat to nearshore lagoon and neritic shallow marine environment and different in composition might have been related to variation in source rock for these sediments which was deposited in the Indo-Myanmar basin formed by rifting and crustal stretching on the continental margin of the Myanmar landmass.

Trade of Wild Edible Plants in all Women Market in Manipur, India

The Himalayan states, especially the rural populations of the North East India, are well known for their reliance on wild edible plants (WEPs) for survival and sustenance. The rural people of Manipur collect a variety of wild vegetables, mushrooms, and wild fruits from nearby forests to meet their daily needs as well as to generate income by selling them in various markets, which have provided them with employment opportunities. Extensive market surveys were carried during various seasons of 2018 in all women market popularly known as “Ima Market” in Imphal valley of Manipur, perhaps the oldest and only one of its kind in Asia, to record the traded WEPs. The study was undertaken to analysis the role of various trader trading WEPs and supply chain in the market. The study revealed a total of 54 species of wild edible plants belonging to 36 families that are traded in the Ima market. Of which 44 species are used as vegetables and 10 species as supplementary fruits diet. Although there is availability of high resource diversity and potential in the state but due to poor connectivity issue these bio-resources are not being efficiently commercialized. The prospects of trading WEPs can be enhanced by setting up micro-enterprise infrastructure and imparting the necessary skills for food processing, value addition, and storage facilities by providing scientific techniques and commercial inputs.

Distribution of rare earth elements and stable isotopic constituents along the groundwater flow paths in the Quaternary deposits of Imphal valley in north‐east India

Groundwater samples collected from three flow paths (the western, central, and eastern flows) in the shallow aquifers of the Imphal valley of north‐east India were examined to study the variation in hydrochemical and rare earth element (REE) characteristics along these flow paths. Each flow path covers a length of around 45 km towards the down gradient. In the western flow, the hydrochemical facies evolved from Na‐Cl‐Ca to Ca‐Na‐Mg‐Cl‐HCO3; in the central flow, it varies from Ca‐Mg‐Na‐Cl to Na‐Ca‐Cl‐HCO3 and in the eastern flow, it changes from Na‐Cl to Ca‐Mg‐HCO3 indicating the evolution of saline water type in the piedmont zone to fresh water type towards the discharge zones around the Loktak Lake. The REE concentration varies along the flow path as the total light REE (LREE) is more enriched than total heavy REE (HREE) in the western and central flows, while LREE is less than HREE in the eastern flow. North American Shale Composite (NASC)‐normalized REE patterns in these flow types show significant convex‐up NASC‐normalized patterns with depleted LREEs. The redox condition in the flow paths is controlled by redox‐sensitive elements such as Eh, pH, Fe, Mn, U, Er, Gd, and Nd which vary relatively along with these flows. REE fractionation depicted by (Er/Nd)SN ratios are high around the upgradient and decrease along the down gradient towards Loktak Lake. The isotopic constituents (δ18O and δD) exhibit fluctuations in their ratios along the groundwater flow paths. The residual hill and piedmont zones are characterized by depleted isotopic composition while the alluvial and flood plains show enriched isotopic composition. Thus, the present study elucidates the behavioural change in major hydrochemical parameters including REE and isotopic constituents, along with the groundwater flow, which will provide a holistic view in understanding the evolution of groundwater in terms of its quality, quantity, and origin in the study area.

Morphotectonic evolution of the Quaternary landforms in the Yangui River basin in the Indo-Myanmar Range

The present study is an attempt to gain insight of the geodynamic implications on the evolution of Quaternary landforms in the Yangui River basin in the Indo-Myanmar Range (IMR), taking a multi-disciplinary approach. Originating at an elevation of ~2568 m asl, the Yangui River flows almost parallel to the regional strike of the IMR and drains into the Imphal valley at Yaripok and exhibits varied valley floor morphology. The valley floors are narrowest in the transverse valley sections. The fluvial landforms are represented by fill terraces, strath terraces and paleochannels. The chronologically constrained ages from fluvial stratigraphy suggests that the oldest phase of aggradation in the area began much before 8 ka. A total of 1164 lineaments were mapped, most trending NE-SW, which is slightly oblique to the regional strike of the IMR. East of the study area, the most prominent lineaments are those trending NE-SW. Lineament analysis suggests that the NNE-SSW trending lineaments are the first generation; followed by the ENE-SWS, while the youngest are the NW-SE trending lineaments. Quaternary landforms related to tectonic activity are observed in the Ringui area, where the morphology suggests transpressional tectonics. Cross-cutting relationships amongst faults suggest multiple phases of tectonic activity; linear valleys are observed along the fault planes. The cross conjugate faults and NW-SW lineaments of the area confirm tectonic activity in the area, which corroborates well with the seismogenic potential and oblique geometry of the Churachandpur-Mao Fault (CMF). Morphometric data also suggest ongoing tectonic activity in the area.

On the genetic position of Chakpa within Luish languages

Chakpa is a ritual and heritage language which is usually classed under the Luish group of Tibeto-Burman language family. It was once spoken in the Imphal valley by such clans as Andro, Sengmai, and Phayeng (McCulloch 1859). However, they do not speak Chakpa anymore. They now speak a variety of Meitei and are collectively known as Lois (Devi L. B. 2002). The Luish languages are divided into three major goups: (i) Cak-Sak, (ii) Chakpa, and (iii) Kadu-Gnan (Matisoff 2013). In this paper, based on my field data (Cak, Sak, Kadu, and Ganan) and secondary sources (McCulloch 1859 and Basanta 2008), I will try to classify Chakpa within Luish.

Delineation of sources of elevated trace elements in surface water and groundwater in Quaternary aquifers of southeastern Imphal valley, Northeast India

Concentrations of Fe, Mn, Pb, Al in both surface water and groundwater, and As, Sr, B, Li and Ba trace elements only in groundwater were observed to have exceeded the WHO and EPA limits in southeastern Imphal valley, Northeast India. Pearson correlation, factor analysis and cross-plots, along with oxygen isotope were used to identify the hydrochemical processes and to delineate the sources of the elevated trace elements. In groundwater samples, 15.6% of the total samples for Sr and 9.4% each for B, Li and Ba were revealed to have elevated values, from piedmont zone, which is related to the evaporite encrustation in Disang shales. 80% and 40% of surface water; and 9.4% and 25% of groundwater showed high concentrations of Al and Pb, respectively. Al and Pb concentrations were originated both from geogenic and anthropogenic sources. Fe and Mn exceed 70% and 20%, respectively, in surface water while 50% each in groundwater. High Fe and Mn might be resulted from reduction of Fe and Mn bearing minerals present in the study area. Excess of As in groundwater was observed from wells located at Kakching subdivision where leaching of As into groundwater from minerals such as kaolinite, montmorillonite, asenopyrite, chalcopyrite, geothite and magnetite and weathering of carbonaceous clay, silt and sand takes place. Other trace elements such as Zn, Bi, Co, Cr and Cd concentrations were all within the WHO limits.

An appraisal of crustal structure of the Indo-Burmese subduction region

We analyzed teleseismic receiver functions of 9 sites to determine the crustal structure beneath the Indo-Burmese subduction region (IBR), which is seismically one of the most active subduction zones of the Indian subcontinent. The receiver function analysis of the primary and reverberated phases allowed us to image the down going Moho beneath the Burmese micro plate parallel to the subducting slab. We observed that this subduction zone is characterized by sharp dip of a thick (˜45 km) crust in the Indian Territory, which steeply bends down to ˜57 km in the Burmese Territory separated by the Churachandpur Mao Fault (CMF). The Imphal valley, located in the central part of the IBR, has a sedimentary thickness of 2.5 km. The Poisson’s ratio values correlate well with the tectonic units comprises the subduction region. We observed high Poisson’s ratio values throughout the region, which reflects bulk mafic to ultramafic crustal composition. Our observations of Poisson’s ratio beneath the IBR reveal that the Indian crust along the IBR is oceanic in nature, which is possibly the Tethyan oceanic crust of Southeast Asia.

A hydrogeochemical approach to evaluate the occurrence and source of salinization in the shallow aquifers of the southeastern Imphal valley in the Indo-Myanmar range of Northeast India

The Imphal valley is an intramontane basin confined within an anticlinorium of several anticlines and synclines in the Disang Group of rocks of Tertiary age. This valley of more than 2 million people is occupied by fluvio-lacustrine deposits of Quaternary age and is located in the central part of the Indo-Myanmar range of Northeast India. The hydrogeochemical parameters of temperature, pH, ORP, TDS, Na, Cl, Br, Ba, B, Sr, Li, δ18O, HCO3, K, Mg, Ca, NO3, PO4, SO4 in 173 samples using ion-chromatograph, ICP (AES), ICP (OES), ICP (MS) and 37 dugwells were studied to understand the occurrence and origin of salinization process for the first time. The order of abundance of ions is identified as HCO3 > Na > Cl > Ca > Mg > K > NO3 > PO4 > Sr > Br > B>Ba > Li > SO4. Five hydrochemical facies (Na–Cl, Ca–Mg–HCO3, Na–HCO3, Ca–Mg–HCO3–Cl and Ca–Mg–Cl) represent the types of waters. The saline-dominated water types (Na–Cl and Na–HCO3) represent piedmont and the rest of the facies represent alluvial plain and flood plain groundwaters. Durov’s diagram reveales initial and intermediate stages of groundwater evolution. Isotope δ18O, Gibbs diagram and ions scatter plots suggest evaporation and crystallization processes leading to halite encrustation in the Disang shales. Negative Eh, low NO3 and the absence of SO4 indicates reduced condition coupled with rich dissolve organic matters leading to elevation of salts in soils around piedmont where the rock type is exclusively of the Disang shales. Trilinear plot, correlation matrix and water table flow analysis suggest salinization of groundwater originates in piedmont groundwater and disseminates towards alluvial plain and flood plain along the flow path.

A century later: Tricolored Pied Flat Coladenia indrani uposathra Fruhstorfer, 1911 (Hesperiidae: Pyrginae) and Crenulate Oakblue Apporasa atkinsoni Hewitson, 1869 (Lycaenidae: Theclinae) reported from Manipur, India

The present paper reports the rediscovery of the Tricolored Pied Flat Coladenia indrani uposathra Fruhstorfer, 1911 and Crenulated Oakblue Apporasa atkinsoni Hewitson, 1869 after about 99 years after they were sighted by Tytler (1915) in Irang river and Sebong of Manipur, North East India. C. i. uposathra was sighted a Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP) and Heibok hills of Imphal valley on 4th and 16th May 2014 and A. atkinsoni was sighted Munnom village at Yaingangpokpi Lokchao Wildlife Sanctuary (YLWS) on 8th December 2015. A. atkinsoni is protected under schedule II of Indian (Wildlife) Protection Act 1972. The rediscovery of such very rare species in Manipur shows that more survey is needed in hills and valley regions of Manipur to know the butterfly fauna of the region.

Identification of plant use as natural herbal shampoo in Manipur

A field survey was conducted in the year, 2011 - 12 in Imphal valley of Manipur, on the use of herbs as ingredient sources for the preparation of traditional natural herbal shampoo referred to as 'Chinghi', by Meitei community. Methodological field survey and personal interview of local people aged between 30-70 years of both sexes using standard questionnaires were carried out to collect information on the plants use in the herbal shampoo preparation. The survey revealed the therapeutic application of 35 plant species representing 28 genera and 18 families available in the Imphal valley. Tree species contributed immensely, yielding 38%, while herbs 32%, shrubs 27%, and climbing shrubs 3%, respectively being the record of the total number of plants used as ingredient in herbal shampoo preparation. These natural shampoos are used for a wide range of common hair care like anti-ageing of the hair, blackness, shininess and smoothness of the hair. It is prepared from young leaves and tender stalk of shoot of trees or shrubs, or whole plant of the herbs and fresh fruits boiled with local sticky rice water locally called 'Chinghi'. Fermented lime peel is also used as a herbal shampoo. The study shows details of their scientific, common, and local names, including their family, parts used, habit of the plants, and the benefit to the hair health as a whole.

Seasonal Variation of Zooplankton Population with Reference to Water Quality of Iril River in Imphal

The zooplankton population of Iril river of Imphal valley of Manipur was investigated with reference to water quality. The fish biodiversity potential of the river remain intake despite the suburban exposure of the river. Since plankton play a great food chain role for fish community, knowing the population of zooplankton as secondary resource is needed. Deterioration of water quality in urban area remain, in most cases, a basic feature. The present investigation endeavour to establish the influence, if any, of water quality of a river in sub-urban settings to the zooplankton population. Five sites were selected stretching from upstream before the river enter the urban area to the downstream as the river exit the urban area. Since the river is in suburb and for some special physical features the Irilriver maintain a significant volume and there seems to be dilution effect and pollution of the river remain a lesser concern. Nevertheless, the study establishespossible influences of the change in water quality to plankton population.

Traditional uses of herbal vapour therapy in Manipur, North East India: An ethnobotanical survey

Ethnopharmacological relevanceVapour-based medicines are an aspect of traditional medicine in North East India. However, no collective studies on this therapy in the region have been attempted. With the changing perception of traditional knowledge, documenting these herbal preparations and the subsequent development of baseline data for applications in further ethnopharmacological research are needed. Aims of the studyTo survey and document the plant species associated with vapour therapy in Manipur, North East India, and to evaluate these traditional practices. Materials and methodsSemi-structured questionnaires were used to collect information from the Meitei community in the Imphal valley and the Jiribam area in Manipur. Traditional disease concepts were studied along with their corresponding medical terminologies. Plant samples collected from fields, healers' private collections and home gardens were identified. Evaluation of the ethnobotanical data was performed with a modified fidelity level index. ResultsIn the study, 41 traditional disease complexes were treated by 13 different routes of administration using 48 mono-ingredient and 17 multi-ingredient compositions. Preparation methods included boiling in water (28%), burning the materials (48%), crushing the materials to release the aroma (21%) and slight heating of the materials (3%). Some of the mono-ingredient recipes reported in the study were observed to have similar uses in other parts of the world, whereas polyherbal remedies were found to be unique without any similar report. ConclusionMany compositions mentioned in the paper are still used by the Meitei community. Traditional healers follow their own criteria for selecting medicinal plants. Plants recorded in this ethnobotanical study can suggest methods for selecting and identifying potentially effective plants for future drug candidates. Scientific characterisation of the herbal remedies can contribute to the endorsement of traditional vapour-based therapies in the modern health care systems. Findings from these “new usage” reports of plants and unique combinations of polyherbal compositions indicate the importance of such documentation efforts.