Impact Of Salt Concentration Research Articles

Enhancing quick-cooking bean quality: The impact of salt concentrations on soaking of fresh and aged Brazilian genotypes

AimThis study aimed to investigate the feasibility of preparing quick-cooking beans from freshly harvested and aged beans with HTC defects from two Brazilian bean genotypes and to evaluate the influence of different salt concentrations in the soaking step. MethodTwo Brazilian bean genotypes (BRS Estilo and BRS Esteio) that were freshly harvested and aged with hard-to-cook (HTC) defects were used to produce quick-cooking beans by testing different treatments with saline solutions (0.5 %, 1.0 %, and 1.5 %) sodium bicarbonate [NaHCO3] and sodium chloride [NaCl]) in the soaking stage. The cooking time, water absorption, damaged grains, colorimetric profile, visual characteristics, and hardness were analyzed. ResultsThe use of salts in the soaking step promoted reductions of up to 95 % in the cooking time of the beans. The shortest cooking times and highest water absorption were observed with NaHCO3 treatments. After processing, browning of the tegument was observed in BRS Estilo, whereas BRS Esteio exhibited the opposite behavior. Beans soaked in NaHCO3 showed higher levels of damage, regardless of the evaluated genotype; however, HTC beans showed less damage and higher hardness than freshly harvested beans. ConclusionDifferent concentrations of NaCl and NaHCO3 enabled the elaboration of beans with greater water absorption capacity, shorter cooking times, and lower hardness. The 1.0 % NaCl treatment produced quick-cooking beans with better characteristics. The use of salts during the soaking step can help in the preparation of quick-cooking beans, providing improvements in technological quality, especially for HTC beans.

Design of PEG-based hydrogels as soft ionic conductors.

Conductive hydrogels have gained interest in biomedical applications and soft electronics. To tackle the challenge of ionic hydrogels falling short of desired mechanical properties in previous studies, our investigation aimed to understand the pivotal structural factors that impact the conductivity and mechanical behavior of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based hydrogels with ionic conductivity. Polyether urethane diacrylamide (PEUDAm), a functionalized long-chain macromer based on PEG, was used to synthesize hydrogels with ionic conductivity conferred by incorporating ions into the liquid phase of hydrogel. The impact of salt concentration, water content, temperature, and gel formation on both mechanical properties and conductivity was characterized to establish parameters for tuning hydrogel properties. To further expand the range of conductivity available in these ionic hydrogels, 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid (AMPS) was incorporated as a single copolymer network or double network configuration. As expected, conductivity in these ionic gels was primarily driven by ion diffusivity and charge density, which was dependent on hydrogel network formation and swelling. Copolymer network structure had minimal effect on the conductivity which was primarily driven by counter-ion equilibrium; however, the mechanical properties and equilibrium swelling was strongly dependent on network structure. The structure-property relationships elucidated here enables the rationale design of this new double network hydrogel to achieve target properties for a broad range of applications.

Meso-macro constitutive model for frozen salinized sandy soil

In the permafrost areas, the frozen salinized sandy soil is a unique geotechnical component whose mechanical properties will influence the stability of engineering. Thus, formulating a constitutive model for frozen salinized sandy soil has significance scientifically for the design of engineering in cold regions. Combining the theoretical framework of breakage mechanicals for materials, micromechanical analysis method, and homogenization method, a meso-macro constitutive model for frozen salinized sandy soil is put forward in this research. In the proposed model, considering the structure characteristics, the frozen salinized sandy soil is abstracted as a type of inhomogeneous binary materials, the bonded elements composed of the unbroken ice crystals, salt crystals, and soil particles, behaving elastic-brittle mechanical properties, and the frictional elements composed of the broken ice crystals, salt crystals, and soil particles, with elastic-plastic mechanical properties. Due to the disparity in the mechanical characteristics of the constituent materials, the impact of salt concentration on the mechanical parameters of the bonded elements is also taken into consideration. Moreover, the nonuniform distribution of stress and strain with the representative volume element is described by introducing the breakage ratio with the derivation of the strain concentration tensor. The comparison with the tested results demonstrates that the proposed mese-mace constitutive model could simulate the stress-strain and volume law of frozen salinized sandy soil under different confining pressures, which has satisfactory adaptability to reflect the physical and mechanical properties of frozen salinized sandy soil.

Estimation of low salinity water flooding efficiency to improve oil recovery in sandstone reservoir in Kazakhstan

Background: The regular increase in demand for hydrocarbons necessitates the introduction of optimal technologies to improve the development of reserves. The method of utilization of water with low salinity as an injected agent seemed promising in solving this issue.
 Aim: The aim of this article is to assess the potential of low-salt water to increase production and oil recovery in the terrigenous field of Kazakhstan.
 Materials and methods: For the study, low-salinity water injection into the reservoir was simulated on the ECLIPSE 100 simulator. The impact of salt concentration on production and oil displacement efficiency in the considered field during the secondary injection were determined by simulating flooding of solutions with different salinity. The model has been running for 18 years. Analysis of salinity reduction efficiency was carried out by comparing oil recovery after flooding with high salinity water.
 Results: The decrease in water salinity led to an increase in oil recovery by 1.32%. Such a slight increase in production is due to the initial hydrophilic properties of the rock. To obtain a response from the contact of low-salt water with rock, the presence of adsorbed oil on the surface of minerals is required. It can be said with high probability that in this reservoir, an increase in the oil recovery factor with a decrease in salinity is due to active interactions at the oil-water interface, one of which is an increase in viscoelastic properties.
 Conclusion: A slight difference in the efficiency of oil displacement between the studied low-salinity waters indicates the presence of the optimal salinity of the injected water. The initial hydrophilic property of the reservoir rock surface excludes wettability change as a reason for the increase in oil production. Further study of low-salt water flooding on core material from the studied field is recommended to obtain accurate data and understand how low salinity can affect the distribution of oil in the rock.

Impact of the Salt Concentration and Biophysical Cohesion on the Settling Behavior of Bentonites

The flocculation behavior of clay minerals in aquatic environments is an important process in estuarine and riverine dynamics, where strong gradients in salinity can locally occur. Various contradicting observations have been reported in the literature on the impact of salt concentration on the settling process of cohesive sediments. To address this issue in a systematic manner, we investigate the settling behavior of clay minerals as a function of the salt concentration of the ambient water. Specifically, we focus on montmorillonite as a prototype clay mineral with a high cation exchange capacity (CEC). To this end, we study suspensions of Wyoming bentonite (Volclay SPV) as a very important constituent for many constructional and industrial purposes. We perform an experimental campaign to study the settling behavior of moderately turbid montmorillonite concentrations in monovalent salt solutions with different salinities (sodium chloride) to represent different environments ranging from deionized to ocean water, respectively. The subsequent settling process was monitored by taking pictures by a camera in regular time intervals over a total observation time up to 48 h. In addition, a modified hydrometer analysis is conducted to determine the grain size distribution (in terms of an equivalent diameter) of the flocculated clay suspension in salt water. Despite the rather high cation exchange capacity of the investigated clay (CEC=88.1), our results show that the settling speed drastically increases within a range of 0.6–1.0 PSU and stays approximately constant for higher salinities. This critical salt concentration is defined here as the critical coagulation concentration (CCC) and lies well below the salinity of natural open water bodies. The hydrometer analysis revealed that 60% of the agglomerates exceed the equivalent grain size of 20 μm. Finally, the findings of this study are supplemented with experiments studying the effect of Extracellular Polymeric Substances (EPS) on the flocculation behavior of bentonite in salt water. Our results demonstrate that salinity is the original trigger for flocculation, whereas EPS allows for even larger floc size but it does not play a significant role for the settling processes of bentonite in estuarine environments.

The role of supercritical carbon dioxide in modifying the phase and interfacial properties of multiphase systems relevant to combined EOR-CCS

Deep knowledge of interfacial properties and phase behavior is decisive for designing processes of oil recovery and carbon storage. The current study aims at investigating the impact of CO2 on relevant properties in binary and ternary model systems. Experimental density data of aqueous and hydrocarbon phases along with their CO2-saturated solutions are reported at pressures up to 250 bar, representing a feasible range of CO2 utilization in EOR and CCS. The interfacial tension (IFT) is determined in binary CO2-oil systems and ternary CO2-water/brine-oil systems as a function of pressure at 60 °C using the Axisymmetric Drop Shape Analysis (ADSA) technique. It is confirmed that IFT is a decreasing function of pressure in both systems. In ternary systems, CO2 acts as an amphiphilic molecule between the coexisting immiscible phases, reducing IFT as the pressure is increased. The impact of salt concentration on the IFT in ternary systems has also been investigated. The IFT is found to acquire its highest value at high salt concentrations. Additionally, a method for quantifying the real volumetric expansion (swelling) of the oil is proposed, and a systematic investigation of volumetric expansion as a function of pressure and aqueous phase composition is performed. It is shown that the swelling increases with pressure and decreases with salinity. Our findings confirm that the solubility of CO2 in the aqueous phase impacts both IFT and volumetric expansion. Lastly, a new approach to infer CO2 solubility in the oleic phase, based on volumetric expansion and density data, is developed and presented.

Impact of salt concentration on bacterial diversity and changes in biogenic amines during fermentation of farmhouse soybean paste in Northeast China

Farmhouse soybean paste in Northeast China is a traditional fermented product made from soybean, and more than 11% (w/w) salt is usually added during production to control the fermentation process. In this study, the variations in bacterial diversity, biogenic amines(BAs) and physicochemical properties during the natural fermentation of soybean paste with different salt concentrations (8%, 9%, 10%, 11%, and 12%) were studied. The results show that at 0 days (0 d) of fermentation in soybean paste, the dominant genera included Staphylococcus, unidentified Clostridiales, and Sporolactobacillus. During fermentation from 30 d to 90 d, the dominant genera were Tetragenococcus and Staphylococcus. However, the proportions of the dominant genera were different depending on the salt concentration. Putrescine(Put), tryptamine(Try), β-phenethylamine(Phe), cadaverine(Cad), histamine(His), and tyramine(Tyr) showed negative correlations with salt concentration. The amino type nitrogen(ANN), titratable acidity(TTA) and total number of colonies were also negatively correlated with salt concentration. Analysis of the correlation between genera and BAs showed that 12 genera were positively correlated with BAs, and 4 genera were negatively correlated with BAs. The results of this study indicated that salt has a significant impact on bacterial diversity during the fermentation of soybean paste, which in turn affects the changes in bacterial metabolites. From the perspective of food safety, the amount of salt added in the soybean paste can be reduced to 10% under the existing fermentation conditions.

Lithium-Ion Transport in Poly(ionic liquid) Diblock Copolymer Electrolytes: Impact of Salt Concentration and Cation and Anion Chemistry

Lithium-Ion Transport in Poly(ionic liquid) Diblock Copolymer Electrolytes: Impact of Salt Concentration and Cation and Anion Chemistry

The impact of salt concentrations on the physicochemical and microbiological changes of rainbow trout caviar

Fish and other fishery products are among the foods recommended for the prevention and treatment of diseases with their high nutritional properties. The demand for fish caviar has increased in recent years due to the increase in fish consumption and their high nutritional and commercial value. In order to meet this increasing demand, caviar substitutes obtained from different fish species have been investigated, however in these limited studies, generally, information about products and markets are provided. In this study, caviar obtained from 30 female rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, raised under farm conditions) were processed with different salt concentrations (2, 4 and 8%). Physicochemical [lipid peroxidation (with Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substance (TBARS), protein degradation (with Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate - PolyAcrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), color (L*, a*, b*) and salt content of caviar formed by salting process)] and microbiological [total aerobic bacteria (TAB)] quality parameters on certain days of 21-day storage (4 °C) (0., 3., 6., 9., 12., 15., 18., and 21.) was investigated. As a result of the study, the changes in TAB, TBARS, L *, a *, b * values and salinity levels during storage were determined as important (p < 0.05). At the end of storage, it was detected in different profiles as well as phosphoprotein and glycoproteins as major protein groups in the SDS-PAGE analysis. In terms of microbiology, 8% salt concentration was found to be very low compared to control and other salt applications. Considering all the research findings, high salt concentrations were determined to have a positive effect on the preservation of quality.

Impact of Salt Concentration on Nonuniform Lithium Electrodeposition through Rigid Block Copolymer Electrolytes.

There is a growing demand for higher energy density lithium batteries. One approach for addressing this demand is enabling lithium metal anodes. However, nucleation and growth of electronically conductive protrusions, which cause short circuits, prevent the use of this technology with liquid electrolytes. The use of rigid solid electrolytes such as polystyrene-b-poly(ethylene oxide) electrolytes is one solution. An additional requirement for practical cells is needed to use electrolytes with high salt concentration to maximize the flux of lithium ions in the cell. The first systematic study of the effect of salt concentration on the morphology of electrodeposited lithium through a rigid block copolymer electrolyte is presented. The nature, areal density, and morphologies of defective lithium deposits created during galvanostatic cycling of lithium-lithium symmetric cells were determined using hard X-ray microtomography. Cycle life decreases rapidly with increasing salt concentration. X-ray microtomography reveals the presence of multiglobular protrusions, which are nucleated at impurity particles at low salt concentrations; here, the areal density of defective lithium deposits was independent of salt concentration. At the highest salt concentration, this density increases abruptly by a factor of about 10, and defects were also nucleated at locations where no impurities were visible.

Salt-Dependent Ion Current Rectification in Conical Nanopores: Impact of Salt Concentration and Cone Angle

Inspired by biological ion channels, many artificial nanopores are fabricated for regulating ion transport based on functionality of discriminating ion types. It is expected that the transport of ions in these nanopores is influenced by their physicochemical nature such as their geometry and the conditions of the liquid phase such as the salt concentration. Taking account of possible presence of electroosmotic flow, these influences are investigated comprehensively in this work. Three types of salt are considered: KCl, NaCl, and LiCl. Several interesting behaviors are observed, and the associated mechanisms are discussed in detail. For example, if the bulk salt concentration is low and the cone angle is sufficiently small, then the rectification ratio of the salts examined ranks as LiCl > NaCl > KCl. However, this trend could be reversed at a larger applied voltage bias if the bulk salt concentration is sufficiently high or the cone angle is sufficiently large. This can be attributed to the fact that the ...

Experimental assessment of a lysine derivative surfactant for enhanced oil recovery in carbonate rocks: Mechanistic and core displacement analysis

Abstract Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) from carbonate reservoirs is of great challenge due to the complex geology that originated from high rock heterogeneity and viscous fingering phenomenon during a displacement process. One of the highly applicable EOR approaches is the utilization of surfactant especially for the aims of foam generation, wettability alteration, emulsion stability and well stimulation in petroleum industry. The dominant mechanisms of surfactant for increasing oil production are wettability alteration of reservoir rock and interfacial tension (IFT) reduction of oil-water system resulting in higher sweep efficiency by diminishing the adverse capillary forces existing in the porous media and easier flow of the residual oil toward the producing wells. In the present study, (S) 2-amino-6-dodecanamidohexanoic acid as an amino acid-based surfactant, is proposed in order to evaluate an EOR application. Firstly, the pH, density and viscosity of the surfactant solutions were measured regarding the impact of salt concentration. Afterwards, IFT and wettability tests were conducted by means of pendent drop and sessile drop methods, respectively. The impact of salt concentration was also examined on the IFT behavior. Moreover, the recovery potential of the proposed amino acid-based surfactant via core displacement test was compared with a traditional brine injection process. Consequently, it is found out that increasing salt concentration has an increasing effect on both IFT trend and the values of critical micelle concentration. Additionally, change in carbonate rock wettability from oil-wet to neutral-wet was also observed. Finally, it is proved that surfactant flooding can improve the oil recovery factor more than the time at which water injection is used.

Impact of salt concentration, ripening temperature and ripening time on CO2 production of semi-hard cheese with propionic acid fermentation

Despite the fact that CO2 production by Propionic Acid Bacteria (PAB) fermentation is the driving force for eye growth in most hard and semi-hard cheese types, few coefficients of CO2 production have been assessed in literature. In this study, the diffusion free CO2 production rate coefficient was experimentally assessed in semi-hard cheese as a function of salt content (0–1.3% w/w), ripening temperature (13–25 °C) and ripening time (2 weeks). The CO2 production rate decreased linearly with increasing salt content due to the inhibition effects of salt on the PAB, while it increased with temperature, due to the vicinity with the PAB optimum growth temperature (25–30 °C). A lower rate of production was observed in the first days of ripening, followed by an increase in CO2 production rate and consequent decrease due to the lower availability of the main substrate (lactate). We proposed a polynomial equation for predicting changes in the CO2 production rate during ripening. This equation may be used to better describe the phenomenon of eye growth occurring in cheese with propionic acid fermentation.

Polyelectrolyte uptake by PEMs: Impact of salt concentration

In a two-step process, polyelectrolytes are added to existing layer-by-layer (LbL)-constructed polyelectrolyte multilayer films (PEMs), generating versatile new films as well as fundamental insights into LbL assembly mechanisms. First, PEM swelling is affected by exposure to aqueous salt solutions of high concentration, and second, polyelectrolyte is added to the swollen PEM at the same high salt concentration. Our strategy is illustrated by adding poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS) to poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride)/PSS PEMs swollen by NaCl, the rebuilding steps tracked by the quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation, or QCM-D, approach. From the swelling after the first step, the association free energy of polycation and polyanion units is derived, ∼−7.0 kJ mol−1. Swelling by salt strongly affects the rate of attachment, depth of permeation, and rate of diffusion of PSS. At low salt ([NaCl] less than ∼1 M for PEMs constructed at [NaCl] = 0.5 M), PSS is added only at/near the PEM surface, while at high salt ([NaCl] greater than ∼1 M for the same PEMs), PSS fully permeates the PEM, contributing a PSS mass that can approach or exceed that already present; higher salt leads to greater PSS uptake. Even with sizable PSS addition, uptake kinetics is closely diffusive, characterized by surprisingly large and sharply [NaCl]-dependent diffusion coefficients (∼10−14–10−12 cm2s−1). The kinetics at high salt concentreation offer no evidence of slow PEM reorganization, although at low salt concentration, such reorganization remains possible.

Study of the binding of sodium dodecylsulfate to dibasic amino acids by reversed-phase chromatography

The interaction of the anionic surfactant sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS) with arginine, histidine, lysine, ornithine and tryptophan was studied by using reversed-phase thin-layer chromatography on unimpregnated cellulose layers. The relative strength of interaction and the impact of salt concentration and pH on it was calculated by using stepwise regression analysis. SDS did not interact with His, and its interaction with Trp was fairly weak. SDS strongly binds to dibasic amino acids; the relative strength of interaction is significantly higher with Lys and Orn than with Arg. These results indicate that SDS probably binds to the secondary amino groups of Lys in proteins. The impact of sodium chloride and acetic acid was similar, but the effect of sodium acetate was significantly weaker. The strong dependence of the strength of interaction on the salt concentration and on the pH of the eluent indicates that hydrophilic, probably electrostatic forces are involved in the SDS-protein interaction.