Illicit Laboratories Research Articles

Synthetic Cannabinoid Use in a Transitional Housing Shelter: A Survey to Characterize Awareness of Risks and Reasons for Use

Synthetic Cannabinoid Use in a Transitional Housing Shelter: A Survey to Characterize Awareness of Risks and Reasons for Use

Characterization of Route Specific Impurities Found in Methamphetamine Synthesized by the Leuckart and Reductive Amination Methods

Impurity profiling of seized methamphetamine can provide very useful information in criminal investigations and, specifically, on drug trafficking routes, sources of supply, and relationships between seizures. Particularly important is the identification of “route specific” impurities or those which indicate the synthetic method used for manufacture in illicit laboratories. Previous researchers have suggested impurities which are characteristic of the Leuckart and reductive amination (Al/Hg) methods of preparation. However, to date and importantly, these two synthetic methods have not been compared in a single study utilizing methamphetamine hydrochloride synthesized in-house and, therefore, of known synthetic origin. Using the same starting material, 1-phenyl-2-propanone (P2P), 40 batches of methamphetamine hydrochloride were synthesized by the Leuckart and reductive amination methods (20 batches per method). Both basic and acidic impurities were extracted separately and analyzed by GC/MS. From this controlled study, two route specific impurities for the Leuckart method and one route specific impurity for the reductive amination method are reported. The intra- and inter-batch variation of these route specific impurities was assessed. Also, the variation of the “target impurities” recently recommended for methamphetamine profiling is discussed in relation to their variation within and between production batches synthesized using the Leuckart and reductive amination routes.

Evidence on unusual way of cocaine smuggling: Cocaine-polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) solid solution—study of clandestine laboratory samples

An abandoned clandestine laboratory was seized in Slovenia. All confiscated exhibits were analysed in a forensic laboratory, where the following analytical methods were applied: capillary gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC–MS) combined also by solid-phase micro extraction (SPME) and pyrolysis (Py) technique, Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray detector (SEM–EDX). The most interesting analytical findings can be summarised as follows: at the crime scene some plastic pieces, which contained cocaine dissolved (as solid solution) in polymethyl methacrylate-plexiglass (PMMA), were found. The highest cocaine concentration measured in the plastic sample was about 15% by weight. Two larger lumps of material (12 and 3 kg) were composed mainly of PMMA and CaCO 3 and contained only 0.4 and 0.5% of cocaine, respectively. As for the low cocaine concentration, we assume that those two lumps of material represent discarded waste product—residue after the isolation of cocaine from plastic. Higher quantities of pure solvents (41 l) and solvent mixtures (87 l) were seized. We identified three types of pure solvents (acetone, gasoline and benzine) and two different types of solvent mixtures (benzine/acetone and gasoline/acetone). The total seized volume (87 l) of solvent mixtures holds approximately 395 g of solid residue formed mainly of PMMA and cocaine. Obviously solvent mixtures were used for isolation of cocaine from the plastic. Small quantities of relatively pure cocaine base were identified on different objects. There were two cotton sheets, most probably used for filtration. One sheet had traces of cocaine base (76% purity) on the surface, while cocaine in hydrochloride form (96%) was identified on the other sheet. GC–MS analyses of micro traces isolated from analytical balances showed the presence of cocaine and some common adulterants: phenacetine, lidocaine and procaine. A cocaine sample compressed in the shape of block was also seized. The above analytical findings inferred us to the conclusion that the illicit laboratory was used for the isolation of cocaine from PMMA resin. Further more, analyses confirm that not only isolation but also further manipulation of cocaine, i.e. adulteration/dilution, as well as the formation of cocaine blocks took place in the house. The information obtained through analyses also allowed us to make some hypotheses about possible multistage isolation procedure.

A survey of reported synthesis of methaqualone and some positional and structural isomers

Methaqualone (2-methyl-3- o-tolyl-4(3H)-quinazolinone) is the illicit synthetic drug of choice amongst South African drug users. Historically police and forensic investigation has proven that all methaqualone seized by the South African Police Service originates from illicit manufacturing sites both inside, and outside South Africas borders. From a drug enforcement, and forensic point of view it is, thus, of utmost importance that the various synthetic routes available to the illicit “chemist” are fully documented and understood. This is a prerequisite for effective illicit laboratory investigation, as well as chemical and precursor monitoring. This paper gives a brief introduction to the current status with regard to methaqualone use and production in South Africa, as well as an extensive review of the synthesis of methaqualone and selected isomers reported since 1946. A table summarizing synthetic routes reported in 32 reference sources is provided.

From the Feds: Research, programs, and products

J Emerg Nurs 2001;27:357-9.

From the Feds: Research, programs, and products

From the Feds: Research, programs, and products

Public Health Consequences Among First Responders to Emergency Events Associated With Illicit Methamphetamine Laboratories—Selected States, 1996-1999

Methamphetamine, a central nervous system stimulant, is manufactured in illicit laboratories using over-the-counter ingredients. Many of these ingredients are hazardous substances that when released from active or abandoned methamphetamine laboratories can place first responders at risk for serious injuries and death. In 16 states, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry maintains the Hazardous Substances Emergency Events Surveillance (HSEES) system to collect and analyze data about the morbidity and mortality associated with hazardous substance-release events. Based on events reported to HSEES during 1996-1999, this report describes examples of events associated with illicit methamphetamine laboratories that resulted in injuries to first responders in three states, summarizes methamphetamine-laboratory events involving injured first responders, and suggests injury prevention methods to protect first responders.

Synthesis of 4-methyl-5-arylpyrimidines and 4-arylpyrimidines: route specific markers for the Leuckardt preparation of amphetamine, 4-methoxyamphetamine, and 4-methylthioamphetamine

General synthetic routes to 4-methyl-5-arylpyrimidines and 5-arylpyrimidines are described. 4-Benzylpyrimidine, 4-methyl-5-phenylpyrimidine, 4-(4-methoxybenzyl)pyrimidine, and 4-methyl-5-(4-methoxyphenyl)pyrimidine have been positively identified as route-specific by-products in the Leuckardt preparations of amphetamine and 4-methoxyamphetamine. Using headspace solid phase microextraction (SPME) 4-(4-methoxybenzyl)pyrimidine and 4-methyl-5-(4-methoxyphenyl)pyrimidine have been identified in illicit tablets containing 4-methoxyamphetamine. This is an indication that illicit laboratories use the Leuckardt method for the preparation of 4-methoxyamphetamine. Flatliner tablets containing 4-methylthioamphetamine have been screened for the presence of 4-(4-methylthiobenzyl)pyrimidine and 4-methyl-5-(4-methylthiophenyl)pyrimidine using both headspace and aqueous phase SPME. As these pyrimidines were not detected it would appear likely that illicit laboratories are not using the Leuckardt method for the preparation of 4-methylthioamphetamine.

Parkinsonism after Taking Ecstasy

To the Editor: Recreational use of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, or “ecstasy”), a hallucinogen, has increased both in Europe and the United States.1 This substance is manufactured in illicit laboratories from a variety of organic ketone precursors. MDMA, which is structurally related both to the stimulant amphetamine and to the hallucinogen mescaline, promotes the release of both serotonin and dopamine from synaptic terminals.2 We report a case of parkinsonism after repeated use of this drug. A 29-year-old man had slight clumsiness of his upper and lower extremities in August 1998. During the following four weeks he began to have difficulty walking and . . .

A Study in the Determination of Phenyl-2-propanone from an Illicit Laboratory Operation

Phenyl-2-propanone (P-2-P) is the starting material for the synthesis of methamphetamines and related compounds. Easily synthesized, P-2-P is ideal for illegal drug production and, therefore, is a controlled substance in the USA. Procedures were developed for the analysis of P-2-P recovered from a clandestine laboratory operation. Methods studied included: (1) a qualitative and semiquantitative determination of the sample constituents using a GC-MS system; (2) quantitation of the amount of the starting materials, phenyl acetic acid and acetic acid, by a potentiometric titration; (3) quantitation by gas chromatography (flame ionization detector) using an internal standard; and (4) high-performance liquid chromatography using both normal and reverse phase chromatographic separations.

Ice: A New Dosage Form of an Old Drug

Ice, which has been described as the drug of the 1990s, is a pure form of (+)methamphetamine hydrochloride; it is more dangerous because of its purity and because it can be inhaled. Taken by this route, the drug causes an effect similar to that from an intravenous dose, and much more intense than that from ingestion. The detailed mechanism of action differs from that of cocaine, but the overall stimulant effect of methamphetamine is similar. Methamphetamine effects, however, persist for hours, whereas cocaine effects are over in minutes. Ice is, therefore, just another agent for abuse by those seeking psychostimulation and, as with cocaine, compulsive abusers of amphetamines consume the drug repeatedly and continuously. Unlike cocaine, methamphetamine is a synthetic compound and is manufactured in illicit laboratories within the United States.

The illicit preparation of morphine and heroin from pharmaceutical products containing codeine: ‘homebake’ laboratories in New Zealand

Since 1983 a large number of small-scale illicit laboratories producing morphine and heroin from commercially available, codeine-based pharmaceutical products have been encountered in New Zealand. The codeine demethylation procedure is based on the use of pyridine hydrochloride. Very simple laboratory equipment and reagents are required and these can be utilised by people with little or no chemical background, following a recipe-like procedure. The process yields a characteristic product known as ‘homebake’. This process is fully described.

Analysis of Illicit Drug Exhibits by Hydrogen-1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Abstract Positive identification of most illicit laboratory exhibits routed to the Special Testing and Research Laboratory of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) for the identification of unknown constituents has been rapidly achieved with the aid of a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometer. This technique often provides valuable quantitative data as well. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the hydrogen atom provides information on the chemical nature of a single hydrogen atom (or group of atoms) within a molecule, the number of hydrogen atoms in a particular group, and the number and relative position of hydrogen atoms in neighboring groups.