Ideal Family Size Research Articles

Sociocultural Factors Influencing Grand Multiparous Practices in Ibadan, Nigeria

Grand multiparous (GMP) women are susceptible to higher risk of developing obstetric complications compared to women of lesser parity. Despite the health consequences on women with high parity, the prevalence rate of multiparity in Nigeria is still high. This study documented the sociocultural factors influencing the GMP practices in Ibadan, Nigeria. Through a multi-stage sampling procedure, and snowballing technique, data were collected through questionnaire from 422 GMP women in six purposively selected rural wards in Akinyele Local Government Area. Qualitative data were elicited through 12 Key informant interviews and six sessions of Focus Group Discussions. The age of respondents was 43.3 years ±1.2 and 41.4% had secondary education. More than half (67%) of the respondents were reportedly influenced to practice GMP, for predominant reasons as couples’ desire for more children (24%), lack in knowledge of contraceptive use (27.0%) and desire for particular sex of child (22.2%). However, the data revealed that majority of the respondents did not want to give birth up to five children. GMP is perceived to be rooted in the cultural values of the respondents and therefore inevitable. Health education and enlightenment programs about ideal family size and its essence are recommended to reduce GMP practices.

Contraceptive Implant Discontinuation in Huambo and Luanda, Angola: A Qualitative Exploration of Motives.

Introduction The Government of Angola is engaged in ongoing efforts to increase access to contraceptives, in particular contraceptive implants (CIs). Discontinuation of CIs, however, has been identified as being a challenge to this work, hindering the improvement of contraceptive prevalence, and in turn, maternal and child health. The objective of this study was to understand motives for contraceptive implant discontinuation in Luanda and Huambo, Angola. Methods We conducted 45 in-depth interviews and six focus groups amongst former and current contraceptive implant clients and family planning nurses in eight clinics across the provinces of Huambo and Luanda. Data collectors transcribed and translated key information from Portuguese into English. We used a combined deductive/inductive approach to code and analyze data. Results Participants described adverse side effects, desire for pregnancy, partner dissatisfaction, quality of care, alternative or lack of information, and religion as motives for discontinuation. Adverse side effects, including prolonged bleeding, amenorrhea, and headaches were most commonly cited by both clients and providers. Discussion Motives for discontinuation reflect existing findings from other studies in similar settings, in particular the influence of adverse side effects and desire for pregnancy as motivating factors. We contextualize these findings in the Angolan setting to tease out the relationship between cultural norms of ideal family size and the perceived role of women in regards to fertility and child-bearing. We suggest that programs enter into dialog with communities to address these concerns, rather than working exclusively on improving service delivery and quality.

Level and determinants of high fertility in two contrasting populations in Nigeria

This study examined levels and determinants of high fertility in the north-west and south-west zones in Nigeria. The study utilized 2013 nation-wide survey data on women aged 15-49 years (n=11,300). Data were analysed using ANOVA, logistic-regression, Brass P/F-ratio, Brass-relational Gompertz fertility and survival analysis models. About 44.4% of women in the north-west had high fertility (CEB≥5) compared to 26.9% in the south-west. The refined TFR, childbearing transition probabilities and progression rate were higher in the north-west (prr=0.2686) than south-west (prr=0.1709). The extent at which the age location of childbearing in the north-west (α=-0.003, StdE=0.083) differs from the standard was higher than south-west (α=-0.032, SE=0.95), but the fertility distribution across ages in the south-west was narrower. The odds of high fertility was higher in the north-west (OR= 2.18, C.I=1.99-2.37, p<0.001) than south-west. This odds barely changed when other factors such as age, age at first-sex, age at first-birth, modern contraceptive use, wealth quintile, education, religion, ethnicity, sex preference and ideal family size were controlled for. Fertility level was higher in the north-west than south-west. Improving women’s education in the north-west may facilitate low fertility in the region.

Trends in Age at Marriage and the Onset of Fertility Transition in sub‐Saharan Africa

In this chapter the author adopts a comparative approach to examining longterm trends in female age at marriage and fertility in sub-Saharan Africa with a focus on continental countries having at least 1 million inhabitants. The author’s database on nuptiality includes over 360 censuses and national surveys conducted in these 39 countries since the 1960s. The author analyzes the association between changes in age at first union and the onset of fertility transition examining whether there is a typical pattern of association followed by most countries in the region.

Reckoning females’ education as a determinant of fertility control in Pakistan

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to obtain empirical evidence on the impacts of socio-economic and demographic factors on the fertility decisions taken by a common family in developing countries like Pakistan. Also, this study contravenes the conventional orthodoxy of childbirth decisions of a family by enlarging the canvas and conjectures the fundamental nexus amongst female’s education, fertility and contraceptive use.Design/methodology/approachThe study is based on micro-level data, obtained from the Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (2012-2013) which is the third survey carried out in Pakistan. Demographic and socio-economic profiles of 13,558 ever-married women, aged 15-49 years, were randomly selected from Gilgit Baltistan and the four provinces of Pakistan. Three dependent variables are used in empirical analysis i.e. current use of contraceptives, total fertility and cumulative fertility. In order to estimate the probability of contraceptive use maximum likelihood, Probit technique is employed with ordinary least squares on reduced form specifications of total fertility and cumulative fertility models.FindingsThe empirical results proved the hypotheses that educated females practice more family planning through modern contraceptives which leads to a decrease in total fertility rates. Some significant links among females’ education, contraceptive use and fertility define the quantity – quality trade-off and opportunity cost of time. Evidently, female education provides maturity and awareness of family size which is necessary to take crucial economic decisions.Research limitations/implicationsThe empirical evidence suggests that maximum efforts should be made toward women’s education. The current standard of education in Pakistan is not enough to overcome the long-standing problem of excessive child birth. This could be done with the help of public – private partnership as the measures taken by the government alone are insufficient. The government should initiate some adequate measures such as education and awareness about contraceptive usage at the secondary school level that could be a vivacious step to support fertility reduction.Practical implicationsThe framework used in this study provides a broader intra-household income–expenditure approach. With a smaller family size, the household’s income would be shared among fewer individuals. It is highly probable that parents would be more attentive if they need to look after a few children. That is the best way to progress their children with limited resources.Social implicationsFrom the socioeconomic perspectives, educated parents plan the ideal family size which allows them to spend more on their children’s upbringing.Originality/valueThis study captures the magnitude of fertility decisions with the relevance of the wife’s education because the present practice in Pakistan does not allow higher education for married women. This is why this study could be used as a benchmark for further study in the same area.

A Multilevel Logit Estimation of Factors Associated With Modern Contraception in Urban Nigeria.

This study aimed to estimate the multilevel determinants of modern contraceptive use among reproductive-age women living in six cities in Nigeria (Abuja, Benin, Ibadan, Ilorin, Kaduna, and Zaria). Data from cross-sectional surveys conducted between 2010 and 2011 were linked to provide information on five hierarchical levels of the Socioecological Framework. Multilevel logit models estimated the odds of modern contraceptive use among 9,473 non-pregnant married/cohabiting women aged 15–49 years living in 488 clusters. About 25 percent of the women reported using modern contraceptive methods at the time of survey. Individual-level factors found to have a positive association with modern contraceptive use were parity, family planning self-efficacy, and partner discussion about fertility desires while perception of negative attitudes from community member about contraceptive use was negatively associated with modern contraceptive use (p < 0.05). At the community level, media exposure to family planning messages and city of residence were significantly associated with modern contraceptive use in the studied sample (p < 0.05). The positive association between parity and modern contraceptive use was modified by the community's ideal family size. The results of this study support the evidence for multilevel interventions as a way to improve the prevalence of modern contraceptive use in urban Nigeria.

Advanced reproductive age and childbearing choices in Nigeria

ABSTRACTThis study examined the relationship between advanced reproductive age and childbearing choices measured by ideal family size, contraceptive use, and unmet need for contraception. Data were extracted from the 2013 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey. The multinomial logistic regression was applied. Results showed that a majority of the women had large ideal family sizes; were not using any method of contraception; and nearly one-fifth of the women had unmet needs for contraception. Results further showed significant associations between advanced reproductive age and childbearing choices. Public health intervention to boost awareness of consequences of childbearing at an advanced reproductive age in Nigeria is imperative.

Education’s impact on fertility: The case of King Saud University Women, Riyadh

Abstract Background Saudi Arabia has a less favorable position to demographic transition due to the traditions, culture, and norms. But with modernization, urbanization and industrialization leading to educational improvement and lifestyle changes, values of children erodes. Thus, a study to investigate the value of education on fertility, entertained to capture this mere fact, specifically to analyze the role of education on fertility; variations created; economic variables; and contraception. Methods This is based on a random sample drawn from a Riyadh based university, taking ever married Saudi Arabian women employees. Linear regression, logistic regression, one-way ANOVA, and chisquare analyses were carried out to depict the role of education on number of children and other related variables. Results Education has high predictive value on age at marriage, age of husband at marriage, ideal family size, and contraceptive use; although not predictive, it creates variations on number of children, years lived with husband and intended number of children. Education’s association with economic variables – type of job, home ownership, and income as well as age of contraceptive users shows its prominence as a catalyst in the future of fertility in the Kingdom. Conclusions Thus, the improving educational levels at current pace shall bring down fertility remarkably warranting attention, policy measures and population programs to retain it above the replacement level.

Determinants of fertility desire among married or cohabiting individuals in Rakai, Uganda: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundRecent trends in fertility rates indicate declines in total fertility rate (TFR) in some sub-Saharan African countries. However, countries such as Uganda continue to have a persistently high TFR partly attributed to strong preferences for large family sizes. We explored the factors that influence fertility desire among married or cohabiting individuals in Rakai, a rural district in southwestern Uganda.MethodsThis cross-sectional study of fertility desire (desire to have another child) was nested in a cluster-randomized demand-creation intervention trial for the promotion of couples’ HIV counseling and testing uptake among married or cohabiting individuals that was conducted in Rakai district between March 1 and April 30, 2015. A total of 1490 married or cohabiting individuals, resident in three study regions with differing background HIV prevalence, were enrolled into the study. Data were collected on socio-demographic, behavioral and fertility-related characteristics. We used a modified Poisson regression model to generate prevalence ratio (PR) as a measure of association for factors that were independently associated with fertility desire. We adjusted for clustering at community level and used STATA version 14.0 for all analyses.ResultsOverall, fertility desire was high (63.1%, n = 940); higher in men (69.9%, n = 489) than women (57.1%, n = 451). More than three-quarters (78.8%, n = 1174) had 3+ biological children while slightly more than two-thirds (68.5%, n = 1020) reported an ideal family size of 5+ children. Only 30% (n = 452) reported that they had attained their desired family size. After adjusting for potential and suspected confounders, the factors that were negatively associated with fertility desire were: age 30–39 (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] = 0.82, 95% CI: 0.78, 0.86) and 40+ years (aPR = 0.65, 95% CI: 0.60, 0.71); having six or more biological children (aPR = 0.88, 95% CI: 0.80, 0.97); being HIV-positive (aPR = 0.86, 95% CI: 0.78, 0.95) and ever use of any family planning methods (aPR = 0.93, 95% CI: 0.87, 0.99). Being male (aPR = 1.19, 95% CI: 1.07, 1.33); having primary education (aPR = 1.21, 95% CI: 1.01, 1.44) and having not yet attained the desired family size (aPR = 4.34, 95% CI: 3.50, 5.38) were positively associated with fertility desire.ConclusionHaving not yet attained one’s desired family size, being male and having primary education were positively associated with fertility desire in this population. Targeting individuals who have not yet attained their desired family size, men and less educated individuals with fertility regulation interventions may help to reduce fertility desire in this population.

Spatial Distribution and Trends of Fertility Differentials in Toba Tek Singh District, Punjab-Pakistan

This study examines socio-economic and demographic factors as fertility differentials and draws conclusions upon data collected from some selected rural and urban localities of Toba Tek Sing-Punjab. The analysis carried to examine change in fertility trends and preferences in relation to children ever born to currently married women. The ideal family size from the both localities is 3.98 which, is still reckoned high as compared to the (NGRP) National Growth Rate in Pakistan which is 3.80. The dependent variable is reproductive preference measured by a single indicator- ideal no. of children and gender in both urban and rural localities as same study was conducted by National Institute of Population Studies (NIPS) in 1990-91 and 2006-07. In Pakistan number of demographic surveys has revealed that woman of reproductive age generally prefer more children than their own preferred family size. The aim of this study is to contribute into the existing literature on the geographical patterns of fertility differentials in a district of the Punjab. This will help planners to formulate more effective fertility related policies and programmes in the country. This is also a continuum of DHS conducted in mid 1980s to elaborate fertility patterns among married couples. The goal is to dig deeper into the relationship between education and fertility has been a central focus within demography and related social sciences. Higher education is associated with higher age at first birth and lower number of children discussed the implication of findings in the context of policy framework to enhance the public awareness about the small family in context with high quality life. Higher fertility in a country like Pakistan is rooted in cultural believes about children and number, pre-natal control measures should be targeted more at women attitude to large family. This is to provide policy makers with an understanding of the potential demand for fertility control and help in formulating policies to reduce fertility and improve socio-economic climate of the district.

Is There a Stronger Association Between Children and Happiness Among the Religious? Religion as a Moderator in the Relationship Between Happiness and Child Number

The literature on child number and happiness has progressed beyond simple associations and has begun to explore the roles of various attitudinal and environmental factors that moderate the relationship. Here the role of religiosity as a moderator in the relationship between happiness and child number is tested. This effect has not been examined before, which is surprising given the role that religion has been shown to play in child number more generally. I draw on both the psychology and demography literature to make a theoretical case that, as religiosity in the United States tends to be associated with pronatalist norms and culture, and as happiness is positively associated with fulfilling sociocultural imperatives, then, all things being equal, the more religious will have a higher happiness effect (or lower unhappiness effect) from their children than the less religious. Using General Social Survey data, my empirical analysis empirically confirmed this hypothesis, showing a positive and significant interaction term between self-identifying as very religious and child number. This interaction is partially mediated by another interaction term between higher ideal family size (measuring pronatalist tendencies) and number of children.

Multilevel Perspectives on Female Sterilization in Low-Income Communities in Mumbai, India.

Surgical sterilization is the primary method of contraception among low-income women in India. This article, using qualitative analysis of key informant, in-depth interviews, and quantitative analyses, examines the antecedents, process, and outcomes of sterilization for women in a low-income area in Mumbai, India. Family planning policies, socioeconomic factors, and gender roles constrain women's reproductive choices. Procedures for sterilization rarely follow protocol, particularly during pre-procedure counseling and consent. Women who choose sterilization often marry early, begin conceiving soon after marriage, and reach or exceed ideal family size early due to problems in accessing reversible contraceptives. Despite these constraints, this study indicates that from the perspective of women, the decision to undergo sterilization is empowering, as they have fulfilled their reproductive duties and can effectively exercise control over their fertility and sexuality. This empowerment results in little post-sterilization regret, improved emotional health, and improved sexual relationships following sterilization.

Explaining Current Fertility Dynamics in Tropical Africa From an Anthropological Perspective

Tropical Africa is known to be lagging far behind the rest of the world in its fertility transition. Many attempts have been made to specify the factors responsible for its resistance to fertility decline; however, no systemic explanation of the mechanisms sustaining its high fertility has been presented in cross-cultural perspective. In this article, we show how a set of anthropological factors provides both social and economic foundations for the preservation of high fertility in tropical Africa. Cross-cultural tests imply that the most important obstacles to tropical Africa’s fertility transition are (a) a high ideal family size, (b) a large potential to absorb increases in the female labor force participation rate without any substantial decreases in fertility due to ample child care readily available through extended family structures, (c) a large potential to increase fertility at the early stages of economic development through the abolition of postpartum sex taboos, and (d) a low potential for increases in birth spacing to contribute to fertility decline. In the last section, we discuss how the results obtained could be useful for policy recommendations aimed at accelerating the fertility decline in tropical Africa, and mitigating the forecasts of explosive population growth.

The influence of wives’ and husbands’ fertility preferences on progression to a third birth in Nepal, 1997–2009

As couples across the globe increasingly exercise conscious control over their reproduction, both spouses’ family-size preferences have the opportunity to influence their fertility. Using couple-level measures of rural Nepalese spouses’ family-size preferences and more than a decade of monthly panel data collected subsequently on fertility outcomes, we investigate how both spouses’ preferences influence progression to a third birth in a country where the widely professed ideal family size is two children. Contrary to expectations based on women's relative disadvantage, we find that it is wives’ preferences that drive couples’ progression to a third birth. We find also that the influence of wives’ preferences is not explained by contraceptive use but that this influence is moderated by couple communication about family planning. Wives’ preferences drive progression to a third birth among couples who had discussed how many children to have.

THE ROLE OF ATTITUDES TOWARDS MATERNAL EMPLOYMENT IN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN JOB QUALITY AND FERTILITY INTENTIONS

1. IntroductionIn contrast to the Unit ed States, in some European countries, fertility has fallen below 1.5 births per woman. Family formation has been postponed to later ages, and childlessness rates have incr eased substantially (JohnsonHanks et al., 2012). Among demographers there is a consensus that low fertility has emerged dir ectly from fertility postponement and is mainly a consequence of changes in fertility timing (Kohler, Billari, & Ortega, 2002; Lutz, O'Neill, & Scherbov, 2004; Sobotka, 2004). Were postponement the only cause of fertility decline, such a decline would not persist, and a trend reversal would be expected. Indeed, most low-fertility European countries have recently experienced a reversal of fertility decline. Yet in all three German-speaking countries (Austria, Germany, and Switzerland), fertility has remained unchanged (Goldstein, Sobotka, & Jasilioniene, 2009; Sobotka & Zeman, 2011). Freijka & Sardon (2004, p. 376) estimated that women born in 1975 might reach completed fertility rates of 1.2-1.3 births by the end of their childbearing years in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland. Ther efor e, German-speaking countries are the only exception to the current reversal of fertility trends in Europe.These developments make it crucial to understand intervening mechanisms other than demographic ones that can sustain such low total fertility rates. An emerging area of research focuses on the impact of housing conditions as mec ha nis ms for det er mining f er tility i nt ent ions. For example, Vignoli, Rinesi, & Mussino (2012) showed in a study using the Italian variant of the Gener a tions a nd G ender Survey, a clea r gra dient between t he fertility intentions of couples and the degree to which they feel secure about their housing situation. Home ownership represents one of the main sources of investment for family savings; it provides an indirect source of income (i.e. the imputed rent), it enables future and sustainable consumption (Dewilde & Raeymaeckers, 2008), and protects against risks of eviction (Mulder & Hooimeijer, 1999), thereby promoting the formation of childbearing intentions. Another important factor in the literature on fertility intentions are social network mechanisms. Social influence can help explain representations of parenthood and ideal family size (Bernardi, 2003), social learning mechanisms have been considered crucial to distinguish who forms childbearing intentions a nd puts t hem int o practice, while finally social interaction is important to fertility because relationships and informal support networks can complement the institutional provision of childcare (Bernardi & Rossier, 2009; Bernardi & Klarner, 2014). Researchers also derive fertilit y differentials from the design of family and employment policies to facilitate the reconciliation of work and family (Hoem, 2005; Kaufman & Bernhardt; Olah & Bernhardt, 2008; Billingsley & Ferrarini, 2014).Other scholars have emphasized the role of employment conditions on fertility (Blossfeld & Hofmeister, 2007; Blossfeld, Klijzing, Mills, & Kurz, 2005; Kreyenfeld, Andersson, & Pailhe, 2012; Sobotka, Skirbekk, & Philipov, 2011). Unemployment has been repeatedly related to low fertility, especially a mong men (Adser a, 2005; Pailhe & Solaz, 2012; Schmitt, 2012), a nd precarious work has been claimed to contribute to fertility postponement (Bernardi, Klaerner, & von der Lippe, 2008; Hanappi, Ryser, Bernardi, & Le Goff, 2012; Scherer, 2009; Steiber & Haas, 2009). Overall, findings suggest that the qua lity of a job matt ers in det ermining how easily par ents can sustain the financial burden of a child and combine work and family, and therefore contributes to explaining childbearing intentions (Begall & Mills, 2011; Del Bono et al., 2014; Cazzola et al. 2016).Far less is known about the effects of gender attitudes. Gender attitudes ha ve been shown t o influ ence work and car e choic es, a s well a s fa mily planning (Rindfuss & Brewester, 1996; McQuillan et al. …

Do parents matter? Intergenerational ties and fertility preferences in a low-fertility context

Using data from the Jiangsu Fertility Intention and Behavior Study (JFIBS), this study examines multidimensional influences of intergenerational ties on married women’s intended and ideal family size in Jiangsu Province, China, an extremely low-fertility setting. Our results suggest that preference for a grandson and a granddaughter, and a woman’s willingness to take advice from the parental generation promotes fertility motivation. In addition, potential (or actual) childcare provision from grandparents shifts fertility intention upward. Some family influences (e.g. family size of origin) tend to be more salient from parents-in-law than from parents, reflecting the patrilineal and patriarchal tradition in China. At the same time, we do not find any pronatalistic effect of co-residence with parents or parents-in-law.

Gender Preference among Married Women in Kolkata Metropolitan Slum of India

Preference for Male baby reflects underlying socioeconomic and cultural patterns and prevailing inequity between genders in many societies in India. A cross-sectional population based study was conducted in the urban slum of Kolkata in eastern India on socio-demographic variables of gender preference among 122 married women using a predesigned, pretested, semi-structured data collection tool. Maximum participants were less than 35 years - 25-34 years (50%) and 15-24 years (45.08%); Female children were predominant; one-third (33.16%) were born between 25-34 age of mothers followed by 10.56 percent from 15-24 age. Among respondents, majority were Hindu (78.68%); from Joint family (54.10%); Unreserved caste (56.57%); Primary school literates (60.65%). Female children were more among Hindus (54.55%), in nuclear families (53.88%), among middle and secondary level of literate mothers (58.23%). Gender had no significant role in treatment seeking behavior though male children had significantly more completion of immunization. In the continuation of education male children received significant advantages. Majority (58.20%) responded with two as the ideal family size; yet all the participants with single living daughter desired another child, preferably a son though 10 percent desired a daughter. Among the participants having one living son and no daughter, looked-for another child (16%), another son (36%) and rest (48%) a daughter. The study identified male gender baby preference among married women related with socio-demographic variables.

Does Schooling Affect Women's Desired Fertility? Evidence From Malawi, Uganda, and Ethiopia.

Demographic scholarship suggests that schooling plays an important role in transforming fertility preferences in the early stages of fertility decline. However, there is limited evidence on the relationship between schooling and fertility preferences that addresses the endogeneity of schooling. I use the implementation of Universal Primary Education (UPE) policies in Malawi, Uganda, and Ethiopia in the mid-1990s to conduct a fuzzy regression discontinuity analysis of the effect of schooling on women's desired fertility. Findings indicate that increased schooling reduced women's ideal family size and very high desired fertility across all three countries. Additional analyses of potential pathways through which schooling could have affected desired fertility suggest some pathways--such as increasing partner's education--were common across contexts, whereas other pathways were country-specific. This analysis contributes to demographic understandings of the factors influencing individual-level fertility behaviors and thus aggregate-level fertility decline in sub-Saharan Africa.

"Nothing special, everything is maamuli": socio-cultural and family practices influencing the perinatal period in urban India.

BackgroundGlobally, India contributes the largest share in sheer numbers to the burden of maternal and infant under-nutrition, morbidity and mortality. A major gap in our knowledge is how socio-cultural practices and beliefs influence the perinatal period and thus perinatal outcomes, particularly in the rapidly growing urban setting.Methods and FindingsUsing data from a qualitative study in urban south India, including in-depth interviews with 36 women who had recently been through childbirth as well as observations of family life and clinic encounters, we explored the territory of familial, cultural and traditional practices and beliefs influencing women and their families through pregnancy, childbirth and infancy. We found that while there were some similarities in cultural practices to those described before in studies from low resource village settings, there are changing practices and ideas. Fertility concerns dominate women’s experience of married life; notions of gender preference and ideal family size are changing rapidly in response to the urban context; however inter-generational family pressures are still considerable. While a rich repertoire of cultural practices persists throughout the perinatal continuum, their existence is normalised and even underplayed. In terms of diet and nutrition, traditional messages including notions of ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ foods, are stronger than health messages; however breastfeeding is the cultural norm and the practice of delayed breastfeeding appears to be disappearing in this urban setting. Marriage, pregnancy and childbirth are so much part of the norm for women, that there is little expectation of individual choice in any of these major life events.ConclusionsA greater understanding is needed of the dynamic factors shaping the perinatal period in urban India, including an acknowledgment of the health promoting as well as potentially harmful cultural practices and the critical role of the family. This will help plan culturally appropriate integrated perinatal health care.

Two Is Best? The Persistence of a Two‐Child Family Ideal in Europe

How persistent and universal has the two child family ideal been in Europe during the last three decades? We analyze responses of women of reproductive age from 168 surveys conducted in 37 countries in 1979–2012. A two‐child ideal has become nearly universal among women in all parts of Europe. Countries that used to display higher ideal family size have converged over time toward a two‐child model. Six out of ten women in Europe consider two children as ideal, and this proportion is very similar in different regions. The mean ideal family size has become closely clustered around 2.2 in most countries. Gradual shifts can be documented toward more women expressing an ideal of having one child (and, quite rarely, having no children) and a parallel decline in an ideal of three or more children. An increasing number of European countries saw their mean ideal family size falling to relatively low levels around 1.95–2.15. However, with the exception of one survey for eastern Germany and two of the surveys not included in our study owing to high nonresponse or low sample size, none of the analyzed surveys suggests a decline in mean ideal family size to levels considerably below replacement, i.e., below 1.9 children per woman.