Hydroxyapatite Biocomposite Research Articles

Study of antibacterial and mechanical properties of poly(methyl methacrylate‐co‐acrylic acid)/hydroxyapatite biocomposite by using artificial neural network approach

AbstractA novel, promising biocomposite was synthesized through the free radical polymerization method using methyl methacrylate (MMA), acrylic acid (AA), and hydroxyapatite derived from oyster shells (Os‐HA). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) peaks indicate the conjugation of Os‐HA in the biocomposite. From the TGA analysis, it was observed that a weight loss of nearly 2% is achieved at 210°C, up to 15% at 210 to 420°C, and up to 95% at 420 to 580°C. The SEM image shows the uniform dispersion of the Os‐HA particles and strong interaction with the copolymer matrix. The broad spectrum at 2θ = 14.6° in XRD analysis indicates the amorphous nature of poly(MMA‐co‐AA)/Os‐HA. The higher inhibition zone of the biocomposite is observed at 125 μL against E. coli bacteria. The maximum water absorption is observed at 15 wt% of Os‐HA. The young's modulus gradually increases, while the impact strength decreases up to 20 wt% of Os‐HA. The artificial neural network (ANN) model has been used to assess the optimum values of impact strength, tensile strength, and Young's modulus of the biocomposite material. The correlation factor (R = 0.998) of the ANN model data indicates greater accuracy of the experimental result.

Influence of Preheat Temperature Variation on Single Screw Extrusion for Characterizing PLA, PCL, and HA Biocomposite Filaments

Fractures and ligament injuries often require bone fixation, commonly through Open Reduction and Internal Fixation (ORIF) with compression plates and screws. Additive manufacturing (AM) techniques are considered sustainable due to their potential to reduce emissions and have a minimal adverse impact on the environment. Currently, there is extensive research into producing biocomposite filaments, though there remains limited exploration of the impact of preheat temperature on filament properties. This research explores the effects of varying preheat temperatures in a single screw extruder to achieve biocomposite filament as candidate for biodegradable bone implants. Biocomposite filaments made from Polylactic Acid (PLA) and Polycaprolactone (PCL) in an 85:15 ratio, with 5% hydroxyapatite (HA) derived from green mussel shell waste. Biocomposite mixture was cut into sub-5mm fragments and extruded at 175°C with preheat temperatures between 159°C and 168°C. Filaments were used to fabricate specimens via a 3D printer, following ASTM D790 standards. Specimens were analyzed using X-Ray Diffractometer, Fourier Transform Infrared, Scanning Electron Microscope, density measurements, three-point bending tests, and biodegradation assessments. Results show that preheat temperature variations significantly affect the filament’s crystallinity index, impacting density and mechanical properties. Higher preheat temperatures result in a lower crystallinity index, decreasing density and potentially increasing degradation rates.

High cycle fatigue and corrosion behaviors of Mg3Zn/HA biodegradable composite

In this study, the effects of adding sub-micron hydroxyapatite (HA) particles were investigated on high cycle fatigue (HCF) and corrosion behaviors of Mg3Zn magnesium alloy. To this end, the Mg3Zn alloy and Mg3Zn/2.5 wt%HA bio composite were fabricated using mechanical-electromagnetic stir casting method followed by hot extrusion process. The results of the microstructural evaluation showed that grain refinement occurred in the composite by 48 % and Vickers microhardness increased approximately by 12 %. According to the results of the pH and weight loss measurements during the immersion tests, the presence of sub-micron HA particles increased the pH of the simulated body fluid (SBF) containing the composite specimens because of the micro-galvanic corrosion between the primary phase and the secondary phase of Ca2Mg6Zn3 in the matrix. However, a thicker protective surface layer formed on the composites, which may lead to a more desirable protection in the longer immersion time, compared to those of the monolithic alloy. Under the tensile monotonic load, the composite exhibited a moderate increase in the yield stress and a reduction in the ultimate tensile strength and the maximum strain at fracture, while the yield stress amelioration is more considerable under the compressive monotonic load. In comparison to the monolithic alloy, an improvement was observed in the high cycle fatigue behavior of the composite, which could be attributed to the yield stress enhancement, retarding the crack initiation under the same stress amplitudes.

The Design of a Piston Extruder for the Production of Gelatin Filaments Available for Hydroxyapatite Biocomposite 3D Printing

Hydroxyapatite is naturally found in bone tissue. Tissue engineering often utilizes synthetic hydroxyapatite biocomposite for bone alloplastic grafting. The bone graft shape and size accuracy can be realized using three dimensions (3D) printing technology. The most important part of the 3D printer is an extruder producing printable filament of the material. This work presents a design of the extruder employed to create a gelatine filament. The gelatin will be used as the matrix of a hydroxyapatite biocomposite in the future. The main components of the extruder are a 10 mL acrylic syringe and a non-captive stepper motor. Three parameters, i.e., extrusion speed, material viscosity, and nozzle size, are examined to find the optimum filament production. The extrusion speed was controlled by programming the frequency step of the motor, and the viscosity was controlled by varying the composition of the aquadest-gelatine mixture. The results showed that the stable operation and the best filament were obtained with a motor speed of 0.17 mm/s, the aquadest-gelatine composition of 10 mL aquadest and 3 grams of gelatine powder, and a nozzle diameter of 0.3 mm.

Long-Term Follow-Up of Open Gustilo-Anderson IIIB Fractures Treated With an Adjuvant Local Antibiotic Hydroxyapatite Bio-Composite.

Background Open fractures associated with significant tissue loss are complex and present challenges in management; they are associated with poor outcomes such as infection, non-union or amputation. This study aimed to evaluate outcomes of using an adjuvant local antibiotic hydroxyapatite bio-composite in the management of open Gustilo-Anderson IIIB fractures with up to eight years of follow-up. Methods This was a retrospective study.A total of 81 patients with Gustilo-Anderson IIIB fractures treated with "fix and flap" limb reconstruction with adjuvant local antibiotic therapy using a bio-composite carrier were reviewed. Results The mean follow-up time for all the patients, at the time of data collection, was 55.8 months. Union was achieved in 96% with a limb salvage rate of 96.3% and a deep infection rate of 3.7%. Conclusion The use of local antibiotic therapy, together with a combined orthoplastic "fix and flap" approach for Gustilo-Anderson IIIB open fractures, was found to be associated with a very low rate of metalwork infection and high union and limb salvage rates. Future studies shouldinclude some functional and quality of life outcome measures to see the efficacy of this method.

Lanthanum Oxide Nanoparticles Reinforced Collagen ƙ-Carrageenan Hydroxyapatite Biocomposite as Angio-Osteogenic Biomaterial for In Vivo Osseointegration and Bone Repair.

A composite biomatrix fabricated with collagen, ƙ-carrageenan, hydroxyapatite reinforced with lanthanum oxide nanoparticles is explored as proangiogenic and osteogenic bone tissue repair biomaterial. The biomatrix shows increased physical and biological stability as observed from proteolytic degradation and thermal stability studies. The addition of lanthanum oxide nanoparticles facilitates good osseointegration coupled with simultaneous activation of proangiogenic properties to act as a bone mimicking material. The minimal level of reactive oxygen species and superior cytocompatibility help the as-synthesized biomatrix in achieving capillary migration into the bone micro environment. The composite biomatrix upregulates the expression of VEGF, VEGF-R2 genes in endothelial cells and osteopontin, osteocalcin in osteoblasts cells, respectively. The in vivo hard tissue repair experiment conducted in a rat model shows complete healing of the bone defect by eight weeks with the application of collagen-ƙ-carrageenan-hydroxyapatite-lanthanum oxide nanoparticle biomaterial when compared to the biomaterial made out of individual constituents alone. The biomaterial matrix gets biointegrated into the bone tissue and exerts its therapeutic value in bringing a faster osseo repair process. The study shows the feasibility of using rare-earth metal nanoparticles in combination with protein-polysaccharide biopolymers for bone regeneration.

Characterization of PLA/PCL/Green Mussel Shells Hydroxyapatite (HA) Biocomposites Prepared by Chemical Blending Methods.

Recently, there has been an increase in the number of studies conducted on the process of developing hydroxyapatite (HA) to use in biocomposites. HA can be derived from natural sources such as bovine bone. The HA usage obtained from green mussel shells in biocomposites in this study will be explored. The research goal is to investigate the composition effect of biomaterials derived from polycaprolactone (PCL), polylactic acid (PLA), as well as HA obtained from green mussel shells with a chemical blending method on mechanical properties and degradation rate. First, 80 mL of chloroform solution was utilized to immerse 16 g of the PLA/PCL mixture with the ratios of 85:15 and 60:40 for 30 min. A magnetic stirrer was used to mix the solution for an additional 30 min at a temperature and speed of 50 °C and 300 rpm. Next, the hydroxyapatite (HA) was added in percentages of 5%, 10%, and 15%, as well as 20% of the PLA/PCL mixture's total weight. It was then stirred for 1 h at 100 rpm at 65 °C to produce a homogeneous mixture of HA and polymer. The biocomposite mixture was then added into a glass mold as per ASTM D790. Following this, biocomposite specimens were tested for their density, biodegradability, and three points of bending in determining the effect of HA and polymer composition on the degradation rate and mechanical properties. According to the findings of this study, increasing the HA and PLA composition yields a rise in the mechanical properties of the biocomposites. However, the biocomposite degradation rate is increasing.

Characterisation of Bovine Amniotic Membrane with Hydroxyapatite Bio-Composite

The fabrication of bio-composite-derived bovine amniotic membrane (BAM) with hydroxyapatite (HAp) is an approach to combining organic and inorganic bio-material to improve the properties of both materials. This research aims to combine, fabricate and characterise the bio-composite of BAM–HA. The combination of bio-composite is made from BAM and HAp in a ratio of 30:70, 35:65, and 40:60. Dried BAM is immersed in saline and then blended until it forms an amniotic slurry with a jelly-like consistency. At this stage, HAp is added so that it can bind to BAM. After the mixture is homogeneous, the freeze-drying process is carried out. After fabrication, all the bio-composites were characterised using Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and porosity analysis, and biological activity was conducted using fibroblasts. The bio-composite has functional groups of amides I, II, III, A, B, OH, CO32− and PO43− according to the results of the FTIR. The XRD analysis showed the presence of HAP crystals. This functional group and the crystal HAP indicate that these two materials are bound. An SEM examination revealed a variety of porous patterns on the surface area. The bio-composite with BAM and HAp at a ratio of 35:65 has a higher mean pore size of 155.625 µm with mean porosity of 89.23% and can maintain the fibroblast viability of 95.14%. In conclusion, the study successfully combined both bio-materials BAM and HAp, which have potential synergistic effects on soft and hard tissue regeneration. The ratio of 35:65 showed good characteristics and was non-toxic.

Boron-incorporated biocomposite coatings on 316L and NiTi alloys: Enhanced structural, antibacterial activity, and cell viability performances.

Boron doped (5 %, 10%, and 15 wt.%) Hydroxyapatite (B-HA) biocomposites were syntesized and coated on 316L SS and NiTi (Ni-45Ti) metallic substrates by using the electrophoretic deposition process (EPD). The morphological and structural characterization of the coatings was executed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction devices (XRD). Antibacterial tests were conducted using Escherichia coli (E. coli, JM103) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus, ATCC29293) microorganisms. The mitochondrial activity assay (MTT)-[3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] was used to examine cell viability and cytotoxicity in Saos-2 osteoblast cells. HA and boron peaks, as well as B-TCP and metallic components, were detected in XRD examinations. Porous morphologies were generated on the surface with boron doped B-HA coatings, as revealed by SEM views. Antibacterial activity studies revealed that both metallic coating groups, notably with boron doping, demonstrated antibacterial activity against gram-negative E. coli and gram-positive S. aureus. The antibacterial activity of the 316L group was shown to be better than that of the NiTi group in comparisonal testing. The syntesized boron-doped biocomposite coatings did not have any detrimental effects on living cells, according to cell viability studies. The cell viability rate was found to be greater in NiTi coatings than in 316 SS coatings, and the impact was amplified by the addition of boron.

Recent Advances in Hydroxyapatite-Based Biocomposites for Bone Tissue Regeneration in Orthopedics.

Bone tissue is a nanocomposite consisting of an organic and inorganic matrix, in which the collagen component and the mineral phase are organized into complex and porous structures. Hydroxyapatite (HA) is the most used ceramic biomaterial since it mimics the mineral composition of the bone in vertebrates. However, this biomimetic material has poor mechanical properties, such as low tensile and compressive strength, which make it not suitable for bone tissue engineering (BTE). For this reason, HA is often used in combination with different polymers and crosslinkers in the form of composites to improve their mechanical properties and the overall performance of the implantable biomaterials developed for orthopedic applications. This review summarizes recent advances in HA-based biocomposites for bone regeneration, addressing the most widely employed inorganic matrices, the natural and synthetic polymers used as reinforcing components, and the crosslinkers added to improve the mechanical properties of the scaffolds. Besides presenting the main physical and chemical methods in tissue engineering applications, this survey shows that HA biocomposites are generally biocompatible, as per most in vitro and in vivo studies involving animal models and that the results of clinical studies on humans sometimes remain controversial. We believe this review will be helpful as introductory information for scientists studying HA materials in the biomedical field.

Investigation and ANN-based prediction of the radiation shielding, structural and mechanical properties of the Hydroxyapatite (HAP) bio-composite as artificial bone

This paper focuses on the radiation shielding, structural and specifically mechanical features of the Hydroxyapatite (HAP) bio-composites which can be used instead of the bone and tooth tissues in the human body via FLUKA Monte Carlo Code (FMCC), Phy-X: PSD software, and an analytical method. Since HAP bio-composites are so brittle, their use is limited instead of bone in the human body. This challenging issue persuaded the scientists and researchers to solve the problem by inserting various oxide or dioxide materials into HAP bio-composites. Thus, in this work, TiO2 and CeO2 with different ratios of x = 0, 3, 7.5, 10 wt.% and y = 0, 2, 6, 7.5 wt.% are inserted into HAP bio-composites and thus eight types of S (S1, S2, S3, and S4) and B (B1, B2, B3, and B4) samples are produced. Using Artificial Neural Network (ANN), this study predicts and demonstrates the system's behavior. Outcomes reveal that increasing the TiO2 and CeO2 concentrations in the (100-x) HAP + xTiO2 and (100-y) HAP + yCeO2 bio-composites will improve the gamma photon shielding performance of the S and B samples. Furthermore, the photon and electron spatial maps for simulated geometries related to the S4 sample are extracted by the FLUKA Monte Carlo Code and are represented graphically. The produced electrons with the highest energy are monitored in lead volumes due to various interactions of gamma photons with lead shields. In addition, sharp peaks are reported for Zeff curves related to the B samples which may be due to the K-edge absorption of the Ce in HAP samples. The FLUKA results are in full agreement with the predicted targets via the ANN algorithm. Moreover, increasing the CeO2/TiO2 concentrations in HAP bio-composites will enhance the rigidity of the chosen S and B samples. The rising percentage of the mechanical moduli related to the S and B series vary between 30% and 90% which may be due to the relationship between the density of the selected HAP bio-composites and mechanical moduli.

One-step preparation of functionally hierarchical and structurally hierarchical biomimetic bioceramics composed of porous hydroxyapatite and carbon fiber reinforced hydroxyapatite composites

Based on human bone structure characteristics and from the perspective of bionics, we designed and constructed hierarchical bioceramics which included porous hydroxyapatite (PHA) providing better bioactive functionality and carbon fiber (CF) reinforced hydroxyapatite (CF/HA) biocomposites with strengthened mechanical properties from the center to the outer part via one-step preparation. The effects of pore forming agent (NH4HCO3) and temperatures on the morphology, mechanical performance, biological properties were studied. The pore sizes of PHA were basically distributed from 20 μm to 200 μm. With the increase of NH4HCO3 contents, both the total number of the pores and interconnected pores increased, and internally connected small micropores were produced among the large pores. The compressive strength of PHA with 30 wt% NH4HCO3 (30%PHA) sintered at 1130 °C was 27.74 ± 0.52 MPa, which lay in the range of cancellous bone. In the hierarchical bioceramics, the interface between the PHA and CF/HA composites was so well bonded that it can be hardly distinguish the different regions in cross-section. The compressive strength of hierarchical bioceramics was 35.43 MPa, which increased by 27.7% compared with 30%PHA. Fracture toughness from the center to the outer part of the ceramics was 0.70 ± 0.15 MPa m1/2 and 1.37 ± 0.29 MPa m1/2, respectively. The high porosity favored the formation of apatite layer and improved the bioactivity compared with the dense hydroxyapatite (HA). The results of the expression of osteogenic genes (BMP2, Runx2, Opn and Ocn) detected by real-time PCR showed that the 30%PHA was positive to bone development. In vivo study indicated that the implanted PHA contributed to the ingrowth of more new bone tissue. This hierarchical bioceramics possess not only the enhanced mechanical properties but also excellent bioactivity and osteogenic properties. The study provides a promising biomimetic hierarchical bone repair materials which can tailor mechanical properties and bioactive functionality via simply adjusting constitution of CF reinforced and porous bioceramics.

Preparation and characterization of Mg(II) doped hydroxyapatite biocomposites

Bone tissue is a calcified matrix formed mainly by hydroxyapatite (HAp). Given the chemical similarity of HAp with several phosphate salts, researchers have been using them to develop clinical scaffolds for bone repair applications. Calcium polyphosphate (CPP) is an inorganic matrix, which presents biocompatibility and low toxicity, however it is brittle, requiring their association with polymers, such as alginate, to improve their mechanical properties. Furthermore, Mg2+ ions are present in the biological medium, participating in acid-base processes that modulate bone calcification and decalcification. Thus, incorporating Mg2+ ions and alginate in HAp could improve its bioactivity. In this context, this work presents the development of composite materials based on calcium polyphosphate, alginate, and magnesium, as candidates for bone tissue applications, using a simple and practical method, with low temperature. The preparation of the composites was achieved by precipitation of CPP in an aqueous medium containing the pre-solubilized alginate, followed by the addition of Mg2+. The materials were characterized by Raman and infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and dispersive energy spectroscopy. The results confirmed the formation of the desired composites with the hydroxyapatite structure, and with the potential to be evaluated for bone repair applications.

Effect of Yttrium Oxide in Hydroxyapatite Biocomposite Materials: Electrical and Antimicrobial Evaluation

Synthesis and characterization of biocomposite materials of hydroxyapatite (HA) and yttrium oxide (Y2O3) were investigated. HA nanoparticles powder was obtained from mussel shells via a wet chemical precipitation routine. HA powder was doped with 1 and 2 wt% of Y2O3. For microstructural examination, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive X-rays (EDX) were used. In addition, the dielectric and electrical properties and antimicrobial activities were investigated. XRD patterns reveal the crystallization of the oxyapatite. The peak intensities of pristine HA are inferior compared to the yttrium containing HA composites, thus suggesting that the addition of yttrium promotes the crystallization of HA due to the variance in their ionic radii. FT-IR shows a variation in the phosphate wavenumber, indicating the integration of yttrium into the HA matrix. SEM reveals nanorod- or worm-like crystals arose in clusters. With increasing Y2O3, from 1 to 2 wt%, the DC conductivity reduces from 16 to 9.3 nS/cm, which confirms that high amounts of Y3+ substitute Ca2+ in the HA matrix. In the high-frequency range, the AC conductivity linearly increases with increasing frequency following the universal power law. Further, antimicrobial activity results showed that the addition of yttrium in HA improves the antimicrobial effects against pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Additional research is needed to investigate the doping concentration of yttrium ions, and an anticipated property could be comprehended for several forthcoming biomedical applications.

Physicochemical changes of the chitosan/β-1,3-glucan/hydroxyapatite biocomposite caused by mesenchymal stem cells cultured on its surface in vitro

In the present study structural characteristics and physicochemical properties of tri-component biomaterial (consisting of chitosan, β-1,3-glucan and hydroxyapatite) seeded with mesenchymal stem cells were investigated with the use of diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFT), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In this study we use non-conventional approach of DRIFT spectroscopy for investigating biomaterial changes under simulated physiological conditions. Particular cell-induced changes were intended to be properly evaluated with analytical methods. Abovementioned techniques allowed to precisely assess the changes on the surface of the biomaterial caused by two kinds of stem cells (ADSCs – Adipose tissue-Derived Stem Cells and BMDSCs – Bone Marrow-Derived Stem Cells) cultured directly on the surface of bioceramic-based biomaterial. The bioactivity and biocompatibility of designed bone biomaterial were demonstrated and hence it seems to be a promising scaffold used in tissue engineering. Designed chitosan, β-1,3-glucan, and hydroxyapatite biomaterial was proven to be non-toxic, surgically handy with cellular compatibility. The obtained results are interesting and promising in terms of spectroscopic methods suitability for qualitative assessment of material-cell interactions.

Cu and Ni functionalized hydroxyapatite biocomposites from common carp scales: green synthesis for antibacterial assessment and wastewater treatment

Cu and Ni functionalized hydroxyapatite biocomposites from common carp scales: green synthesis for antibacterial assessment and wastewater treatment

Both Phosphonic Acid- and Fluorine-Containing Poly(aryl ether)-hydroxyapatite Biocomposites: Toward Enhanced Biocompatibility and Bonelike Elastic Modulus.

Metal-based implants possess excellent mechanical strength, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility and can deliver favorable performances in clinic treatments. However, modulus mismatching is considered a common defect for metal-based materials, while polymer-based materials with a bonelike elastic modulus have been regarded as one of the most promising candidates for bone replacement implants. In this work, a phosphonic acid- and fluorine-containing poly(aryl ether) (PAE) resin is designed and synthesized, which is determined to be an amorphous polymer with excellent thermostability. The elastic modulus of composites is improved to 15.7 GPa by reinforcing with 60 wt % hydroxyapatite (HA), which demonstrates admirable protein adsorption and hydrophilicity. After 14 days of immersion in simulated body fluid, a layer of HA deposition can be observed, indicating favorable bioactivity in advance, and the preliminary in vitro cell experiments also suggest that PAE-HA composites possess favorable cell responses on adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation, which reveal the feasibility of synthesized polymers to be employed as bone replacement materials, while the adjustability in molecular chains also leaves room for further investigations.

Biocomposite of Hydroxyapatite from Chicken Egg Shells and Biochar from Rice Husk As an Adsorbent for Copper Ion and Methylene Blue

The growth of industrial activity and increasing use of water have effected to the releasing of various pollutants into the waters, as methylene blue and copper ions. Excess levels of methylene blue and copper ions in the waters can cause ecosystem damage. This study aims to obtain biocomposites of hydroxyapatite from chicken egg shells and biochar from rice husk as well as their adsorption ability to inorganic pollutants (Cu (II)) and organic pollutant (methylene blue). Hydroxyapatite (HA) was synthesized by calcining chicken eggshells into CaO powder which is then reacted with (NH4) 2 HPO 4 . Furthermore HA was mixed with biochar from rice husk to form biocomposites. The ability of the biocomposite adsorption test was carried out by varying the time and initial concentration of the metal solution and methylene blue. Based on the results of the study, HA-biochar composites showed the best contact adsorbing time for methylene blue and copper ions 50 and 30 minutes respectively. Testing of biocomposite adsorption ability to the initial concentration of methylene blue as much as 12.79 ppm showed that the biocomposite is able to adsorb methylene blue to a residual concentration of 1.15 ppm or the maximum percentage of methylene blue that can be adsorbed by 91%. The ability of HA-biochar composites to adsorb methylene blue is better than its constituent materials (HA and biochar). HA-biochar composites was also able to adsorb Cu ions with an average adsorption percentage of 79.45% from the initial concentration.

Biocompatibility and osteoconductivity of scaffold porous composite collagen–hydroxyapatite based coral for bone regeneration

AbstractThe synthesis of collagen–hydroxyapatite composites has been carried out, and the biocompatibility and osteoconductivity properties have been tested. This research was conducted to determine the ability of hydroxyapatite–collagen composites to support the bone growth through the graft surface. Hydroxyapatite used in this study was synthesized from coral with a purity of 96.6%, while collagen was extracted from the chicken claw. The process of forming a scaffold of collagen–hydroxyapatite composites was carried out using the freeze-drying method at −80°C for 4 h. The biocompatibility characteristics of the sample through the cytotoxicity tests showed that the percentage of viable cells in collagen–hydroxyapatite biocomposite was 108.2%, which is higher than the percentage of viable cells of hydroxyapatite or collagen material. When the viable cell is above 100%, collagen–hydroxyapatite composites have excellent osteoconductivity as a material for bone regeneration.

Fabrication and characterization of porous bone scaffold of bovine hydroxyapatite-glycerin by 3D printing technology

This research aims to know the mechanical properties of bone graft bio-composites of bovine hydroxyapatite (BHA)-Glycerin by deposition using three-dimensional (3D) Printer. BHA-Glycerin was mixed with a various ratio of 60:40, 45:55, 35:65, 30:70 and 25:75 (%wt) which precipitated for 24 ​h. After homogenization process, bio-ink shaped slurry was acquired that will be used as material to be printed in 3D printer into scaffold. After the printing process was completed then the scaffold was dried on heated bed for 10 ​min and re-heated in the microwave for 15 ​min at a temperature of 100 ​°C. As a result, the highest hardness of 3D bone scaffold BHA-Glycerin was 24.23 ​± ​1.22VHN while the lowest was 2.03 ​± ​0.12VHN. The produced hardness is lower than the commercial HA product and human bone. The highest compressive strength was 5.71 ​± ​0.43 ​MPa and the lowest was 3.22 ​± ​0.13 ​MPa. The produced compressive strength is in the range of the commercial HA and human bone. The highest density of scaffold BHA-Glycerin is 1.65 ​± ​0.06 ​g/cm3 while the lowest is 1.28 ​± ​0.07 gr/cm3. The produced density is lower than the commercial HA product and higher than human bone. Observations pores with a microscope show pore size of 300–400 ​μm and have a square shape.