Hydrogen Storage System Research Articles

Estimation of hydrogen solubility in aqueous solutions using machine learning techniques for hydrogen storage in deep saline aquifers

The porous underground structures have recently attracted researchers’ attention for hydrogen gas storage due to their high storage capacity. One of the challenges in storing hydrogen gas in aqueous solutions is estimating its solubility in water. In this study, after collecting experimental data from previous research and eliminating four outliers, nine machine learning methods were developed to estimate the solubility of hydrogen in water. To optimize the parameters used in model construction, a Bayesian optimization algorithm was employed. By examining error functions and plots, the LSBoost method with R² = 0.9997 and RMSE = 4.18E-03 was identified as the most accurate method. Additionally, artificial neural network, CatBoost, Extra trees, Gaussian process regression, bagged trees, regression trees, support vector machines, and linear regression methods had R² values of 0.9925, 0.9907, 0.9906, 0.9867, 0.9866, 0.9808, 0.9464, and 0.7682 and RMSE values of 2.13E-02, 2.43E-02, 2.44E-02, 2.83E-02, 2.85E-02, 3.40E-02, 5.68E-02, and 1.18E-01, respectively. Subsequently, residual error plots were generated, indicating the accurate performance of the LSBoost model across all ranges. The maximum residual error was − 0.0252, and only 4 data points were estimated with an error greater than ± 0.01. A kernel density estimation (KDE) plot for residual errors showed no specific bias in the models except for the linear regression model. To investigate the impact of temperature, pressure, and salinity parameters on the model outputs, the Pearson correlation coefficients for the LSBoost model were calculated, showing that pressure, temperature, and salinity had values of 0.8188, 0.1008, and − 0.5506, respectively, indicating that pressure had the strongest direct relationship, while salinity had an inverse relationship with hydrogen solubility. Considering the results of this research, the LSBoost method, alongside approaches like state equations, can be applied in real-world scenarios for underground hydrogen storage. The findings of this study can help in a better understanding of hydrogen solubility in aqueous solutions, aiding in the optimization of underground hydrogen storage systems.

Numerical Modeling of Metal Hydride-Phase Change Material Hydrogen Storage Systems with Increased Heat Exchange surface area

Coupling Metal Hydrides (MH) with Phase Change Materials (PCM) provides a promising way of storing hydrogen without using any active systems to control the MH temperature during cycling. In this study, we perform numerical assessments on the performance of cylindrical MH-PCM storage systems with varying geometrical configurations. We investigate the ab/desorption kinetics in a straight cylindrical geometry (case A), where the PCM surrounds the MH. Its cycle time and gravimetric density for the absorption of 1.04kWh are 2,200 s and 0.30%. We then investigate two improved configurations, namely the addition of fins to the external surface of the MH and within the PCM domain (case B), and the containment of the MH powder into a helix-shaped tube immersed in the PCM (case C). Number and thickness of fins are also varied to assess their impact. Compared to case A, the helix-shaped design is 49% and 40% faster in absorption and desorption, respectively, whereas the finned geometry is 28.9% and 30% faster. The gravimetric density is 0.27% and 0.62% in case B and C, respectively.

DFT investigation of thermodynamic, electronic, optical, and mechanical properties of XLiH3 (X= Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba) hydrides for hydrogen storage and energy harvesting

The present study investigates the hydrogen storage capacity and physical properties of the perovskite hydrides XLiH3 (X = Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba). The studied compounds MgLiH3, CaLiH3, SrLiH3, and BaLiH3 have lattice constants 3.76, 4.29, 4.64, and 5.04 Å, respectively. These compounds are also observed to be stable in cubic phase under atmospheric pressure and temperature conditions. They have hydrogen storage capacities 8.76 wt%, 5.99 wt%, 3.07 wt%, and 2.03 %, respectively. The SrLiH3 compound has the greatest Debye temperature (θD) of 344.41 K. The analysis of the electronic band structure and density of states reveals that perovskite hydrides have semiconducting characteristics with indirect band gap values of 2.66, 2.34, 1.94, and 1.37 eV, respectively. The materials are semiconductors and have suitable band gaps to be utilized in optical devices. Therefore, the optoelectronic properties of dielectric constants, absorption, and energy loss have been determined to predict the potential of materials for optoelectronic applications. Furthermore, the elastic constants, moduli, and anisotropy are also calculated for the observed materials. The Possion and Pugh ratios indicate these compounds exhibit ductile behaviour and significant anisotropy. Therefore, large values of hydrogen capacities, stabilities, and extraordinary physical behaviour make them important for hydrogen storage systems.

Unveiling the Potential of Heterogeneous Systems for Reversible Hydrogen Storage in Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers.

Transitioning towards a carbon-free economy is the current global need of the hour. The transportation sector is one of the major contributors of CO2 emissions in the atmosphere disturbing the delicate balance on the Earth, leading to global warming. Hydrogen has emerged as a promising alternative energy carrier capable of replacing fossil fuels, with advancements in systems facilitating its storage and long-distance transport. In this context, the concept of liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs) is taking the lead, offering a plausible solution because of its compatibility with the existing gasoline infrastructure, while eliminating the challenges associated with conventional hydrogen storage methods. Key LOHC systems, such as methylcyclohexane/toluene and H-18-dibenzyltoluene/dibenzyltoluene (H-18-DBT/DBT), have been extensively researched for large-scale applications. However, challenges persist, particularly concerning the endothermic nature of the reactions involved. In this regard, of particular interest are the multifunctional heterogeneous catalysts supported on a single support, offering cost-effective and energy-efficient solutions to circumvent issues related to the endothermicity of the reactions. In this review, solid heterogeneous catalysts that have been developed and investigated for reversible dehydrogenation and hydrogenation reactions have been presented. These catalysts include monometallic, bimetallic, and pincer complexes supported on materials designed for efficient hydrogen uptake and release.

The integral role of high‐entropy alloys in advancing solid‐state hydrogen storage

AbstractHigh‐entropy alloys (HEAs) have emerged as a groundbreaking class of materials poised to revolutionize solid‐state hydrogen storage technology. This comprehensive review delves into the intricate interplay between the unique compositional and structural attributes of HEAs and their remarkable hydrogen storage performance. By meticulously exploring the design strategies and synthesis techniques, encompassing experimental procedures, thermodynamic calculations, and machine learning approaches, this work illuminates the vast potential of HEAs in surmounting the challenges faced by conventional hydrogen storage materials. The review underscores the pivotal role of HEAs' diverse elemental landscape and phase dynamics in tailoring their hydrogen storage properties. It elucidates the complex mechanisms governing hydrogen absorption, diffusion, and desorption within these novel alloys, offering insights into enhancing their reversibility, cycling stability, and safety characteristics. Moreover, it highlights the transformative impact of advanced characterization techniques and computational modeling in unraveling the structure–property relationships and guiding the rational design of high‐performance HEAs for hydrogen storage applications. By bridging the gap between fundamental science and practical implementation, this review sets the stage for the development of next‐generation solid‐state hydrogen storage solutions. It identifies key research directions and strategies to accelerate the deployment of HEAs in hydrogen storage systems, including the optimization of synthesis routes, the integration of multiscale characterization, and the harnessing of data‐driven approaches. Ultimately, this comprehensive analysis serves as a roadmap for the scientific community, paving the way for the widespread adoption of HEAs as a disruptive technology in the pursuit of sustainable and efficient hydrogen storage for a clean energy future.

Hydrogen Confinement in Hexagonal Boron Nitride Bubbles Using UV Laser Illumination.

Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) bubbles are of significant interest to micro-scale hydrogen storage thanks to their ability to confine hydrogen gas molecules. Previous reports of h-BN bubble creation from grown h-BN films require electron beams under vacuum, making integrating with other experimental setups for hydrogen production impractical. Therefore, in this study, the formation of h-BN bubbles is demonstrated in a 20nm h-BN film grown on a sapphire substrate with a 213nm UV laser beam. Using atomic force microscopy, it is shown that longer illumination time induces larger h-BN bubbles up to 20µm with higher density. It is also demonstrated that h-BN bubbles do not collapse for more than 6 months after their creation. The internal pressure and gravimetric storage capacity of h-BN bubbles are reported. A maximum internal pressure of 41MPa and a gravimetric storage capacity of 6% are obtained. These findings show that h-BN bubbles can be a promising system for long-term hydrogen storage.

Modeling and design for metal hydride-based hydrogen storage systems in underwater PEMFC applications

Utilizing metal hydride materials presents a promising avenue for establishing a highly concentrated hydrogen medium suitable for onboard vehicle applications, including underwater contexts. This paper introduces a design solution devised to estimate the characteristics of a metal hydride-based hydrogen storage system tailored for underwater vehicle deployment. The solution facilitates sensitivity analysis across various parameters by offering system mass and volume estimations. The findings highlight the significance of thermodynamic properties and operational conditions in determining the suitability of metal hydrides for compact and efficient hydrogen storage. The study underscores the importance of refueling time, L/D ratio, cooling fluid temperature and velocity, and hydrogen storage capacity in influencing system mass, volume, and thermal management. The model provides insights into the design and optimization of metal hydride-based hydrogen storage systems, offering a comprehensive approach to enhancing performance and reliability for underwater applications.

Numerical investigations into the comparison of hydrogen and gas mixtures storage within salt caverns

Salt caverns, long used for natural gas storage to manage peak loads, are being considered for hydrogen storage as part of the shift towards greener fuels. This transition necessitates re-evaluating heat and fluid transport to ensure the suitability of storage sites. A comparative analysis between current (natural gas and compressed air) and prospective (hydrogen and gas mixtures) storage systems was conducted using a standardized historical cycle over thirty days to identify trends. Hydrogen exhibited the lowest cumulative temperature and pressure increase (17 °C, 0.40 MPa), but the greatest variability per cycle, with an average range of 26 °C and 1.6 MPa. This higher fluctuation could potentially limit its use in short-term cycles compared to natural gas. Moreover, hydrogen's storage capacity was found to be a third of natural gas's, at only 6.6 GWh for the cavern design and specified pressure limits. These findings indicate that while hydrogen presents a greener alternative, its high variability and lower storage capacity pose challenges for its use in existing infrastructure, highlighting the need for further research to optimize its storage and utilisation in energy systems.

Influence of nitrogen cushion gas in 3-phase surface phenomena for hydrogen storage in gas condensate reservoirs

Recent research has primarily focused on 2-phase systems for hydrogen storage in porous media. However, the impact of cushion gases mixed with hydrocarbon fluids, such as n-octane, in depleted condensate-type reservoirs remains poorly understood. This study addresses the gap by evaluating the effects of pressure (500–3000 psi), temperature (30–70 °C), and NaCl brine salinities (2–20 wt%) by measuring the contact angles (CAs) between n-octane and substrates (for Quartz and Wolf camp shale) in brine, and interfacial tensions (IFTs) between brine and n-octane while injecting pure H2 gas (base case) and a mixture of 60% H2 and 40% cushion gas (30% N2 + 5% CH4 + 5% CO2). The CA results revealed that pressure had a relatively minor impact on the system with pure H2 injection, compared to temperature and salinity. However, when 40% cushion gas was added, the CA increased with pressure and salinity but decreased with rising temperature. It was observed that CAs for pure H2 gas were lower than those for the H2 + cushion gas mixture. Also, the equilibrium IFTs showed a consistent reduction with increasing pressure and temperature, while they increased with higher salinity. Comparing the IFTs of the 3-phase (H2 + cushion)/n-octane/brine system to those of the 2-phase (H2 + cushion)/brine system revealed that n-octane could effectively reduce the system's IFT by approximately 33%. Overall, this study provides valuable data for hydrogen storage in depleted gas condensate reservoirs containing hydrocarbon fluids like n-octane.

Hydrogen underground storage for grid electricity storage: An optimization study on techno-economic analysis

This study performs a techno-economic analysis of hydrogen underground storage systems for grid electricity storage, evaluating their economic viability at the plant scale using dynamic optimization. It explores the feasibility of various system configurations and revenue models in the context of volatile electricity prices and the necessity for multiple revenue streams. The hypothesis tested is that large-scale hydrogen storage, despite its low round-trip efficiency, can be economically viable with the right mix of revenue streams. This study uses scenario-based analysis to assess the impacts of different system configurations, including engaging in time-shifting arbitrage, ancillary service markets and blending hydrogen with natural gas. Results indicate potential annual net cash flows of up to $1.5 million from ancillary services integration and $5.2 million from natural gas blending, contingent on specific system sizes. The study concludes that hydrogen underground storage for grid electricity storage can be profitable, and emphasizes that proper system design and precise electricity price forecasting are crucial for optimizing system performance and economic returns. This research sets the stage for further investigations into the scalability of hydrogen storage systems and their broader implications for grid electricity storage and energy market dynamics.

Sustainable Rubber Nanocomposites for Hydrogen Sealings: Impact of Carbon Nano-Onions and Bio-Based Plasticizer

Additives play a crucial role in modifying and enhancing the properties of rubbers, improving mechanical strength, thermal stability, and chemical resistance to make them more suitable for various applications. The rubber industry faces challenges related to high resource consumption and toxic emissions, which are further impacted by the use of performance-enhancing additives. In hydrogen storage systems, tailored additives are required for rubbers to withstand elevated temperatures and high pressures, preventing hydrogen-induced swelling, a major cause of sealing failure. Herein, a novel form of carbonaceous material, carbon nano-onions (CNOs), and the bio-based plasticizer additive epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) are utilized in conventional silica-filled nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) nanocomposites to develop low-carbon manufacturing high pressure hydrogen resistant O-rings for sealing applications. The results reveal that the incorporation of CNOs increases the crosslinking density (vc), assisted by ESO, in silica-filled NBR nanocomposites. While the conventional adipate-based plasticizer and ESO were found to be susceptible to high pressure hydrogen exposures, ESO demonstrated sustained compressive sealing properties with increase in von-Mises stress and in elevated thermo-oxidative conditions over time. The results of the life cycle assessment (LCA) recommend ESO for low-carbon manufacturing in rubber processing over conventional plasticizers.

Unlocking the potential of borophene nanoribbons for efficient hydrogen storage

This research explores the structural, electronic, optical, and hydrogen storage properties of borophene nanoribbons (BNRs) with armchair (ANR-B-H) and zigzag (ZNR B-H) edges. Computational simulations optimized these structures, revealing that 7ZNR-B-H has a superior binding energy. Chemical modifications, such as fluorine passivation and functionalization, influenced bond parameters and quantum properties. Bilayer BNRs showed increased stability and enhanced electrical conductivity. Our study demonstrated promising hydrogen storage capabilities, with passivated and functionalized BNRs achieving suitable adsorption energies and a significant gravimetric storage capacity of 20.32 wt%, exceeding DOE standards. NH2 functionalization notably improved adsorption energy, enhancing potential for efficient hydrogen storage. Changes in absorption spectra post-H2 adsorption further highlight BNRs’ potential for hydrogen storage applications. These findings provide valuable insights into BNRs, paving the way for their use in electronic devices and hydrogen storage systems.

Optimal rule-based energy management and sizing of a grid-connected renewable energy microgrid with hybrid storage using Levy Flight Algorithm

The study addresses the integration of hybrid hydrogen (H2) and battery (BT) energy storage systems into a renewable energy microgrid comprising solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind turbine (WT) systems. The research problem focuses on improving the effectiveness and computational efficiency of energy management systems (EMS) while ensuring high system reliability. Despite the existing optimization methods for hybrid microgrids, challenges remain in optimizing energy storage and capacity planning in grid-connected microgrids. To solve this, we propose the use of the Levy Flight Algorithm (LFA) to optimize the capacities of PV, WT, H2 tanks, electrolyzers (EL), fuel cells (FC), and BT, which presents a complex nonlinear optimization challenge. The novelty of this study lies in integrating the LFA with a rule-based EMS, enhancing system reliability and efficiency. The proposed approach significantly reduces the annualized system cost (ASC) and the levelized cost of energy (LCOE). The result demonstrate that the LFA outperforms methods like the Salp Swarm Algorithm (SSA), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO) and Genetic Algorithm (GA), yielding cost savings of $3,309, $5,297, $4,484, and $5,129 respectively. The LFA achieves the lowest LCOE at $0.275/kWh, compared to $0.278/kWh with SSA, $0.289/kWh with GA, $0.280/kWh with PSO and $0.283/kWh with GWO. This research contributes to the broader scientific community by providing a more efficient approach to optimizing renewable energy microgrids with hybrid storage systems, thus promoting eco-friendly and cost-effective energy solutions. The proposed system design offers a pathway to future energy systems with high renewable integration, especially as technology advances and costs continue to decrease.

Modeling of a metal hydride energy storage tank dynamics using hybrid numerical, experimental, and machine learning methods

This study presents an integrated analysis combining numerical simulations, experimental investigations, and machine learning models to simulate the performance of metal hydride systems for hydrogen storage under various conditions by using a LaNi5 metal hydride cylindrical tank of 500 NL capacity, with a focus on PCM thermal enhancements and surface water heating and cooling. Numerical simulations offer insights into thermal and reaction dynamics, while experimental data are used for model validation and supplemented with additional numerical data for training a FFNN model to predict dynamic hydrogen flow, surface temperature, and surface heat flux. The obtained mean RMSEs for charging/discharging experimental data is 2.8 SOC% for the state of charge and 0.3 °C for surface temperatures. The study compares the effectiveness of water cooling and heating in metal hydride surface across different temperatures, highlighting their impact on the efficiency of hydrogen absorption and desorption processes. Energy consumption is shown to be non-linear; during charging, heat flux peaks before decreases rapidly within around 0.2 h. During discharging, heat flux rises steadily. The study also explores the impact of adding copper fins to the PCM covering metal hydride system, revealing significant improvements in charging and discharging efficiency, specifically, the integration of 16 copper fins led to a notable decrease in complete charging time from approximately 6.5 h to just over 5.2 h, and in complete discharging time from around 4.5 h to under 3.96 h. Using PCM, the highest heat flux is 5 times less during charge and 2 times less during discharge than that for water cooling mode.

Analysis of rapid decompression failure in polymer liner of Type IV hydrogen storage vessels using a novel fluid–solid coupling model

Type IV vessels have been developed for hydrogen storage systems, but the rapid decompression failure during the decompression process can lead to the collapse of the liner, significantly reducing the lifespan of the vessels. This study aims to investigate nonlinear buckling behaviors and collapse mechanisms of polymer liner in Type IV hydrogen storage vessels. Considering the intrinsic coupling between hydrogen gas depletion and mechanical behavior of vessels, a fluid–solid coupling model was proposed using the fluid cavity techniques and HyperMesh. Results indicated that the pressure difference generated on the liner is the primary cause leading to the polymer liner collapse. The critical pressure difference significantly increases with the thickness of the liner, while it decreases nonlinearly with the increase in void defect size. Parametric sensitivity analysis highlighted the depth of initial void defect and the liner thickness as two significant influencing factors in the critical decompression rate.

The structural, elastic, optoelectronic properties and hydrogen storage capability of lead-free hydrides XZrH3 (X: Mg/Ca/Sr/Ba) for hydrogen storage application: A DFT study

Perovskite hydrides are promising materials for hydrogen capacity application to achieve the US DOE on-board criteria. We have investigated novel perovskite hydrides XZrH3 (X: Mg/Ca/Sr/Ba) for H2 storage and transportation applications. In this study we investigates the physical properties of XZrH3 light materials for solid-state hydrogen storage application by incorporating the DFT framework with the CASTEP code. We have theoretically examined the structural, mechanical, electronic, optical, and hydrogen storage properties of these materials. The selected compounds were fully relaxed and optimized in the cubic phase space group Pm-3 m. Structural phase stability was confirmed through thermodynamic, and mechanical analyses. Mechanical properties, evaluated based on Poisson’s ratio, the Puagh’s ratio, and Cauchy pressure, indicate the ductile behavior with a preference for ionic bonding. The electronic structure analysis reveals the metallic behavior of these materials. Optical calculations were also performed to provide additional insights into the physical properties of H2 compounds. The gravimetric hydrogen storage capacities were calculated as 2.55, 2.25, 1.66, and 1.31 wt% for MgZrH3, CaZrH3, SrZrH3, And BaZrH3 hydrides respectively. The identified properties of XZrH3 suggest that these materials could significantly enhance hydrogen storage systems, with potential integration into existing energy technologies, offering a pathway toward more efficient and sustainable hydrogen-based solutions.

A rechargeable and portable hydrogen storage system grounded on soda water

A rechargeable and portable hydrogen storage system grounded on soda water

Enhancing the dehydrogenation properties of LiAlH4 through the addition of ZrF4 for solid-state hydrogen storage

Hydrogen energy is emerging as an essential alternative to fossil fuels due to its clean energy profile, generating energy without greenhouse gas emissions. Solid-state hydrogen storage, particularly using complex hydrides like LiAlH4, holds promise due to high hydrogen capacities. However, practical applications of LiAlH4 face obstacles due to slow dehydrogenation kinetics and high decomposition temperatures. This study investigates the catalytic effect of ZrF4 on LiAlH4 to improve hydrogen storage properties. Incorporating 10wt.% ZrF4 has significantly lowered the onset desorption temperature from 160 °C to 80 °C. Desoption kinetic result showed that the addition of 10wt.% ZrF4 can enables the release of 5.6wt.% hydrogen in 120min at 100 °C, which is 50 times faster than in undoped samples. X-ray diffraction analysis indicated that ZrF4 facilitated the in-situ formation of Al3Zr and LiF phases during dehydrogenation, thereby enhancing catalytic efficiency. The desorption activation energies for first two reactions decreased significantly by ~ 16kJ/mol and ~24kJ/mol with ZrF4 doping. These findings suggest that ZrF4 effectively improves the hydrogen storage properties of LiAlH4, positioning it as a potential catalyst for solid-state hydrogen storage systems.

Study on Performance Simulation Matching of One-Dimensional Hydrogen Storage and Supply System for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles

Article Study on Performance Simulation Matching of One-Dimensional Hydrogen Storage and Supply System for Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles Qi Liu 1,2, * , Biao Xiong 1,3, Yuxuan Liu 1,3, Chuanyu Zhang 1,3, Shuo Yuan 1,2, and Wenshang Ma 1,3 1 College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China 2 Research Institute of Hunan University in Chongqing, Chongqing 401120, China 3 State Key Laboratory of Advanced Design and Manufacturing for Vehicle Body, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China * Correspondence: author: hnuliuqi@hnu.edu.cn Received: 1 July 2024; Accepted: 12 September 2024; Published: 27 September 2024 Abstract: With the improvement of environmental protection requirements, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are considered one of the most potential and promising new energy vehicles because of their advantages, such as pollution-free emission, long cruising range, and short hydrogenation time. However, there are still unresolved problems between the storage and supply of hydrogen and the power demand during the operation of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. In this study, a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle is taken as the research object, and a one-dimensional model is built according to the basic performance parameters so as to explore the operation law of the power performance demand of the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, simulate the power demand in the actual operation process, summarize the influence of different parameters on the power economic performance of the vehicle, and put forward optimization strategies to improve the power, durability, and fuel economy of the vehicle.

Advanced computational screening of X2CaH4 (X = Rb and Cs) for hydrogen storage applications

Utilizing cutting-edge computational screening methods, this study explores the hydrogen storage capacity of two complex metal hydrides, Cs2CaH4 and Rb2CaH4. We perform a thorough analysis of their structural, electrical, optical, and hydrogen storage properties using density functional theory (DFT). Within the I4/mmm space group, both compounds display stable tetragonal crystal structures, and their thermodynamic stability is confirmed by their formation energies. Notably, compared to Rb2CaH4, Cs2CaH4 is more stable. With band gaps of 2.99 eV for Cs2CaH4 and 3.28 eV for Rb2CaH4, the electronic properties show insulating behavior, which is beneficial for reducing electronic interference during hydrogen absorption and desorption. A comparative research reveals that the potential gravimetric hydrogen storage capacities of Cs2CaH4 (1.28%) and Rb2CaH4 (1.86%) are comparable to, albeit marginally less than, those of materials that are frequently explored, such as lithium borohydride. With their individual absorption and reflectivity peaks, the optical characteristics offer more information about how they interact with electromagnetic radiation, information that may be useful for improving their performance in real-world applications. Our results imply that Cs2CaH4and Rb2CaH4 have considerable potential for use in practical hydrogen storage systems, especially in situations where stability and minimal electronic interference are essential. Subsequent research endeavors may concentrate on enhancing the hydrogen storage capacity of these materials, so rendering their incorporation into existing hydrogen storage methods more feasible.