Hydrogen Refueling Infrastructure Research Articles

Analysis of Refueling Behavior Models for Hydrogen-Fuel Vehicles: Markov versus Generalized Poisson Modeling

This paper presents an analysis of two methodologies that can be used to predict refueling behavior. Both models aim to provide insights into hydrogen-fuel vehicle users’ refueling patterns and behaviors. The first model leverages probabilistic transitions between refueling states to simulate and predict the refueling behavior of hydrogen vehicle users. In contrast, the GP-1 model employs Gaussian processes to capture the underlying patterns and uncertainties in hydrogen-fuel vehicle refueling behavior, taking into consideration additional factors such as weather conditions and the time of the year. The model demonstrates statistical significance and accuracy in predicting trips while identifying the insignificance of precipitation and high ambient temperatures. The methodologies, findings, strengths, and limitations of the two models were tested and compared to identify their relevant contributions. By contrasting their methodologies and evaluating their predictive performance, using performance metrics such as accuracy, precision, and recall values, this study provides valuable insights into the strengths and limitations of each approach. Limitations include assuming a stationary refueling process and excluding external factors and limitations related to data availability, as well as the absence of a specific focus on hydrogen-fuel vehicles. By understanding the differences and similarities between these two models, this paper aims to provide a unique perspective on gaps and further requirements for accurate prediction and modeling of refueling behavior to guide policymakers, infrastructure planners, and stakeholders in making informed decisions regarding the design and optimization of hydrogen refueling infrastructure.

Dynamic Modeling and Operation of a Green Hydrogen Fueling Station for Heavy-Duty Fuel Cell Vehicles

Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) have increased driving ranges and faster refueling times than battery electric vehicles (BEVs). The driving range of FCEVs can be increased by increasing the size, quantity or operating pressure of on-board hydrogen storage tanks at a lower weight and cost than increasing the size or number of Li-ion battery packs in BEVs. Ffast-refueling leads to less waiting time at the fueling station for high-utilization commercial vehicles. As a result, fuel cell system heavy-duty vehicles (HDV) are attracting more attention [1]. Currently, the lack of a hydrogen refueling infrastructure is limiting FCEV adoption. Since the driving routes of HDV trucks are more predictable, a small number of strategically located fueling stations could service pre-planned truck driving routes [2]. While hydrogen refueling protocols and fueling stations for light-duty vehicles (LDV) have been extensively studied [3,4,5], HDV trucks have different refueling protocols and operating conditions (e.g. mass holdup, pressure, refueling rate). To our knowledge, little work has been done on modeling hydrogen fueling stations for HDV trucks applications. With this motivation, a dynamic model of a truck stop coupled with green hydrogen production has been developed for fleet HDV trucks. At the truck stop, green hydrogen is produced from water electrolysis using solar photovoltaics (PV). Electrochemical hydrogen compression (EHC) is implemented for high-pressure hydrogen storage and dispensing. The fluctuations from solar PV and truck hydrogen demand are actively managed by installation of a spherical hydrogen storage vessel. The feasibility and flexibility of a truck stop using 100% renewable electricity and hydrogen will be discussed.A high-fidelity dynamic model of a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzer is developed for hydrogen production from PV electricity. A PEM electrochemical hydrogen compressor model is developed for gas pressurization with consideration of EHC temperature and water management. The green hydrogen is stored in a large spherical storage vessel to decouple the different PV power loads and HDV trucks hydrogen refueling demands. A modular system for HDV trucks refueling (nominal working pressure of 35 MPa) is designed and modeled with parallel multi-stage hydrogen compression and cascaded storage tanks. It was found that single modular system for FCEV refueling shows a service gap during hydrogen cascaded storage tank refilling, but a multiple modular structure can be easily expanded and provide uninterrupted hydrogen for FCEV refueling.The different hydrogen production and dispensing scenarios are implemented depending on the seasonal solar supply and varied HDV trucks demands. Hydrogen compression using mechanical compressor and electrochemical compressor are compared. The truck stop operation strategies are proposed based on the integrated process systems analysis of solar penetrations, hydrogen production and compression, and HDV trucks demand. The feasibility and flexibility of truck stop fueled by solar energy provide an insight for the transition to Net Zero Emission Transportation.[1] Cullen, D.A., Neyerlin, K.C., Ahluwalia, R.K., Mukundan, R., More, K.L., Borup, R.L., Weber, A.Z., Myers, D.J. and Kusoglu, A. (2021). New roads and challenges for fuel cells in heavy-duty transportation. Nature energy, 6(5), 462-474.[2] Cano, Z. P., Banham, D., Ye, S., Hintennach, A., Lu, J., Fowler, M., & Chen, Z. (2018). Batteries and fuel cells for emerging electric vehicle markets. Nature Energy, 3(4), 279-289.[3] Xiao, L., Chen, J., Wu, Y., Zhang, W., Ye, J., Shao, S., & Xie, J. (2021). Effects of pressure levels in three-cascade storage system on the overall energy consumption in the hydrogen refueling station. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 46(61), 31334-31345.[4] Rothuizen, E., Mérida, W., Rokni, M., & Wistoft-Ibsen, M. (2013). Optimization of hydrogen vehicle refueling via dynamic simulation. International journal of hydrogen energy, 38(11), 4221-4231.[5] Rothuizen, E., & Rokni, M. (2014). Optimization of the overall energy consumption in cascade fueling stations for hydrogen vehicles. International journal of hydrogen energy, 39(1), 582-592.

Modelling hydrogen storage and filling systems: A dynamic and customizable toolkit

Hydrogen plays a vital role in decarbonizing the mobility sector. With the number of hydrogen vehicles expected to drastically increase, a network of refuelling stations needs to be built to keep up with the hydrogen demand. However, further research and development on hydrogen refuelling infrastructure, storage and standardization is required to overcome technical and economic barriers. Simulation tools can reduce time and costs during the design phase, but existing models do not fully support calculations of complete and arbitrary system layouts. Therefore, a flexible simulation toolbox for rapid investigations of hydrogen refuelling and extraction processes as well as development of refuelling infrastructure, vehicle tank systems and refuelling protocols for non-standardized applications was developed. Our model library, H2VPATT, comprises of typical components found in refuelling infrastructure. The key component is the hydrogen tank model. The simulation model was successfully validated with measurement data from refuelling tests of a 320 l type III tank.

A self-sustaining renewable energy driven hydrogen refuelling system utilising a metal hydride-based compressor

The transition towards carbon-free transportation is only possible by the adoption of renewable energy alternatives. Hydrogen-based transportation is an attractive option considering the availability of the required refuelling infrastructure. A well-established network of hydrogen refuelling infrastructure is important for the widespread commercialization of fuel-cell electric vehicles. The most expensive H2 refuelling components originate from hydrogen compression. Due to their ability to run on solar thermal energy, a metal hydride hydrogen compressor is used in this study. In this communication, the aim is to present a study on solar thermal based hydrogen compressors for a hydrogen refuelling station. An analytical study is presented on the energy assessment of a metal hydride compressor by considering three candidate pairs of metal hydrides (Pair 1: Ti0.95Zr0.05Cr0.8Mn0.8V0.2Ni0.2/Ti0.8Zr0.2Cr0.95Fe0.95V0.1; Pair 2: TiCr1.55Mn0.2Fe0.2/Ti0.9Zr0.1Mn1.4Cr0.35V0.2Fe0.05, Pair 3: La0.35Ce0.45Ca0.2Ni4.95Al0.05/Ti0.8Zr0.2Cr0.95Fe0.95V0.1) to achieve refuelling pressure of 700 bar. The variation in thermal efficiency of the compressor and thermal energy requirements with changes in heat source temperature, supply pressure and heat losses are presented. Furthermore, the economics of three pairs of alloys for high-pressure compression is compared. It was found that Ti0.95Zr0.05Cr0.8Mn0.8V0.2Ni0.2/Ti0.8Zr0.2Cr0.95Fe0.95V0.1 pair has the maximum compressor efficiency of 7.2% at supply pressure and heat source temperature of 25 bar and 150 °C, respectively. In addition, the study revealed that heat losses from the reactor could reduce efficiency by around 12.5%. The economic study revealed that the Ti0.95Zr0.05Cr0.8Mn0.8V0.2Ni0.2/Ti0.8Zr0.2Cr0.95Fe0.95V0.1 pair has the least cost for hydrogen compression among the other chosen pairs.

Optimizing Hydrogen Fueling Infrastructure Plans on Freight Corridors for Heavy-Duty Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles

<div>The development of a future hydrogen energy economy will require the development of several hydrogen market and industry segments including a hydrogen-based commercial freight transportation ecosystem. For a sustainable freight transportation ecosystem, the supporting fueling infrastructure and the associated vehicle powertrains making use of hydrogen fuel will need to be co-established. This article introduces the OR-AGENT (Optimal Regional Architecture Generation for Electrified National Transportation) tool developed at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, which has been used to optimize the hydrogen refueling infrastructure requirements on the I-75 corridor for heavy-duty (HD) fuel cell electric commercial vehicles (FCEV). This constraint-based optimization model considers existing fueling locations, regional-specific vehicle fuel economy and weight, vehicle origin and destination (O-D), and vehicle volume by class and infrastructure costs to characterize in-mission refueling requirements for a given freight corridor. The authors applied this framework to determine the ideal public access locations for hydrogen refueling (constrained by existing fueling stations), the minimal viable cost to deploy sufficient hydrogen fuel dispensers, and associated equipment, to accommodate a growing population of hydrogen fuel cell trucks. The framework discussed in this article can be expanded and applied to a larger interstate system, expanded regional corridor, or other transportation network. This article is the third in a series of papers that defined the model development to optimize a national hydrogen refueling infrastructure ecosystem for HD commercial vehicles.</div>

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles: Opportunities and Challenges

This paper provides an in-depth review of the current state and future potential of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs). The urgency for more eco-friendly and efficient alternatives to fossil-fuel-powered vehicles underlines the necessity of HFCVs, which utilize hydrogen gas to power an onboard electric motor, producing only water vapor and heat. Despite their impressive energy efficiency ratio (EER), higher power-to-weight ratio, and substantial emissions reduction potential, the widespread implementation of HFCVs is presently hindered by several technical and infrastructural challenges. These include high manufacturing costs, the relatively low energy density of hydrogen, safety concerns, fuel cell durability issues, insufficient hydrogen refueling infrastructure, and the complexities of hydrogen storage and transportation. Nevertheless, technological advancements and potential policy interventions offer promising prospects for HFCVs, suggesting they could become a vital component of sustainable transportation in the future.

The ATHENA framework: Analysis and design of a strategic hydrogen refuelling infrastructure

With the pressured timescale in determining effective and viable net zero solutions within the transport sector, it is important to understand the extent of implementing a new refuelling infrastructure for alternative fuel, such as hydrogen. The proposed ATHENA framework entails three components which encapsulates the demand data analysis, an optimisation model in determining the minimal cost hydrogen refuelling infrastructure design, and an agent-based model simulating the operational system. As a case study, the ATHENA framework is applied to Northern England focusing on the design of a hydrogen refuelling infrastructure for heavy goods vehicles. Analysis is performed in calibrating parameters and investigating different scenarios within the optimisation and agent-based simulation models. For this case study, the system optimality is limited by the feasible number of tube trailer deliveries per day which suggests an opportunity for alternative delivery methods.

Optimizing Long Term Hydrogen Fueling Infrastructure Plans on Freight Corridors for Heavy Duty Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">The development of a future hydrogen energy economy will require the development of several hydrogen market and industry segments including a hydrogen based commercial freight transportation ecosystem. For a sustainable freight transportation ecosystem, the supporting fueling infrastructure and the associated vehicle powertrains making use of hydrogen fuel will need to be co-established. This paper develops a long-term plan for refueling infrastructure deployment using the OR-AGENT (Optimal Regional Architecture Generation for Electrified National Transportation) tool developed at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, which has been used to optimize the hydrogen refueling infrastructure requirements on the I-75 corridor for heavy duty (HD) fuel cell electric commercial vehicles (FCEV). This constraint-based optimization model considers existing fueling locations, regional specific vehicle fuel economy and weight, vehicle origin and destination (OD), vehicle volume by class and infrastructure costs to characterize in-mission refueling requirements for a given freight corridor. The authors applied this framework to determine the ideal long term public access locations for hydrogen refueling (constrained by existing fueling stations and dispensing technology), the minimal viable cost to deploy sufficient hydrogen fuel dispensers, and associated equipment, to accommodate a growing population of hydrogen fuel cell trucks. The framework discussed in this paper can be expanded and applied to additional electrified powertrains as well as a larger interstate system, expanded regional corridor, or other transportation networks.</div></div>

Future vehicle energy supply - sustainable design and operation of hybrid hydrogen and electric microgrids

To decarbonise road transport, EU policymakers promote battery electric vehicle and fuel cell electric vehicle adaption and advocate the expansion of charging and hydrogen refuelling infrastructure in the Fit-for-55 package. However, infrastructure operators face cost-intensive operations and insufficient low greenhouse gas (GHG) hydrogen availability. Grid-connected hybrid hydrogen refuelling and electric vehicle charging microgrids with on-site hydrogen production, battery and hydrogen energy storages and renewable energy can help to solve these challenges. We investigate the influence of various microgrid design and operation strategies regarding their contribution to profitability and decarbonisation in an optimisation study. Our findings in a real-world case study within Germany indicate that the cost-effectiveness of designing and operating such microgrids does not contribute to the decarbonisation of road transportation under common operation strategies and current demand charge regulations. We advocate revising German demand charge regulations to support sustainable design and operation of future charging and hydrogen refuelling microgrids.

Techno-economic analysis of different shades of renewable and non-renewable energy-based hydrogen for fuel cell electric vehicles

The transport sector is crucial in our day-to-day socio-economic activities since it connects people and moves things around the world. Presently, the transport sector is predominantly driven by fossil-fuel-based systems, leading to an unsustainable impact on the climate system. In the quest for an alternative to fossil fuel, hydrogen holds promise in transport applications, whether by powering fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) or as feedstock for synthetic fuels. Even though hydrogen-powered FCEVs are zero-carbon and have high-well-to-wheel efficiency, the high production cost of hydrogen and lack of refueling infrastructure hinder its larger market penetration. In this review, firstly the techno-economic performance of the five different shades of hydrogen, grey, blue, green, purple, turquoise, and their associated carbon footprint were elaborately discussed. Second, analysis of levelized cost of different hydrogen colors to provide a clear picture of the cost-relative challenges and limitations in renewable and non-renewable hydrogen production routes and discussed the cost-effective hydrogen pathways. Third, the “chicken and egg” hindrance in deploying hydrogen refueling infrastructure by discussing the research on infrastructure deployment, hydrogen delivery pathways, and hydrogen refueling station (HRS) design based on the market of FCEVs across the world were addressed from global industrial perspective. Finally, the current status and future trends of on-and off-road hydrogen-powered FCEVs were discussed by addressing the key challenges to construct low carbon sustainable transportation.

Hydrogen fuel supply chains for vehicular emissions mitigation: A feasibility assessment for North American freight transport sector

Freight trucks powered by alternative low-emissions fuel sources such as electricity or hydrogen have gained significant attention as replacements for their fossil fuel-operated counterparts. Even though this shift to alternative fuels can reduce the operational emissions at the vehicle tailpipe, there can be significant emissions throughout their supply chains. A thorough review of the published literature highlights that a comprehensive investigation is lacking on the well-to-wheel life cycle impacts of hydrogen fuel used for freight transportation. Furthermore, a comparison between hydrogen-fueled and electric freight transport is unavailable in the published literature. This study comprehensively investigated the life cycle environmental and economic impacts of alternative fueled freight transport based on vehicle types and relevant supply chains. A life cycle impact database was developed for key electric and hydrogen fuel supply chain scenarios and was ranked based on the economic and environmental performance under different decision-maker perspectives. The life cycle emissions of delivering hydrogen fuel range from 2.2 to 12.6 kgCO2eq./kg of hydrogen whereas electric grid emissions range from 0.005 to 0.315 kgCO2eq./MJ. However, hydrogen systems that use electrolysis to produce hydrogen show better environmental performance over the complete vehicle life cycle compared to electric systems that are highly dependent on nonrenewable energy sources. The cost of ownership of a hydrogen and electric freight truck is approximately 2.15 and 0.54 CAD/km respectively. However, with investments from governments and private institutions to develop hydrogen refueling infrastructure, hydrogen-fueled freight vehicles have the potential for reducing GHG emissions in the road transportation sector.

Feasibility Investigation of Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure for Heavy-Duty Vehicles in Canada

A potentially viable solution to the problem of greenhouse gas emissions by vehicles in the transportation sector is the deployment of hydrogen as alternative fuel. A limitation to the diffusion of the hydrogen-fuelled vehicles option is the intricate refuelling stations that vehicles will require. This study examines the practical use of hydrogen fuel within the internal combustion engine (ICE)-powered long-haul, heavy-duty trucking vehicles. Specifically, it appraises the techno-economic feasibility of constructing a network of long-haul truck refuelling stations using hydrogen fuel, across Canada. Hydrogen fuel is chosen as an option for this study due to its low carbon emissions rate compared to diesel. This study also explores various operational methods, including variable technology integration levels and truck traffic flows, truck and pipeline delivery of hydrogen to stations, and the possibility of producing hydrogen onsite. The proposed models created for this work suggest important parameters for economic development, such as capital costs for station construction, the selling price of fuel, and the total investment cost for the infrastructure of a nation-wide refuelling station. Results showed that the selling price of hydrogen gas pipeline delivery option is more economically stable. Specifically, it was found that at 100% technology integration, the range in selling prices was between 8.3 and 25.1 CAD$/kg. Alternatively, at 10% technology integration, the range was from 12.7 to 34.1 CAD$/kg. Moreover, liquid hydrogen, which is delivered by trucks, generally had the highest selling price due to its very prohibitive storage costs. However, truck-delivered hydrogen stations provided the lowest total investment cost; the highest is shown by pipe-delivered hydrogen and onsite hydrogen production processes using high technology integration methods. It is worth mentioning that once hydrogen technology is more developed and deployed, the refuelling infrastructure cost is likely to decrease considerably. It is expected that the techno-economic model developed in this work will be useful to design and optimize new and more efficient hydrogen refuelling stations for any ICE vehicles or fuel cell vehicles.

Sustainable hydrogen manufacturing via renewable-integrated intensified process for refueling stations

The widescale consumer adoption of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs) is currently hindered by the high cost of small-scale hydrogen generation and the lack of extensive hydrogen refueling infrastructure. Natural gas-based hydrogen is cheaper when produced in large volumes but is also associated with high CO2 emissions. To counter these challenges, we propose a hybrid approach where both natural gas and renewables are integrated in a synergistic manner using a dynamic process intensification technology that can be deployed on-site for meeting local demands of refueling stations. The technology is based on sorption enhanced steam methane reforming (SE-SMR) that utilizes a combination of reaction with in-situCO2 adsorption for enhancing process modularity, productivity and efficiency thereby outperforming conventional SMR at small scale. We develop a mixed integer linear programming (MILP)-based optimization framework for simultaneous design and scheduling of the SE-SMR process. The simultaneous optimization provides a synergistic combination whereby the renewables allow sustainable hydrogen manufacturing and the dynamic SE-SMR allows optimal use of the intermittency of the renewables. The U.S. nationwide analysis indicates that for futuristic renewable prices and a hydrogen production capacity of 2 ton/day, hydrogen can be produced at 50% less cost compared to the current cost of small-scale hydrogen generation. The city-wise analysis with varying hydrogen demand shows that even with just 5% HFCEV market penetration level, hydrogen production cost less than $3/kg can be obtained at small scales across the United States with even cheaper hydrogen for large cities.

Fuel cell hybrid vehicles and their role in the decarbonisation of road transport

Nearly ten years have passed since the comeback of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). However, the percentage of such vehicles on the roads is still low and there is widespread concern about the long-term success of this technology. On the other hand, vehicles fueled with hydrogen, which it is beginning to be praised by several car companies as the fuel of future, do not yet have broad market acceptance, being even lower than battery electric vehicles and facing significant barriers for a widespread diffusion. In this research work, a novel type-approval test procedure is developed aiming to stablish an impartial simulation-based comparative analysis of technical feasibility, performance, range, and greenhouse gas emissions of two hybrid powertrains that manage electricity stored in a lithium-ion battery and hydrogen in tanks: Plug-In Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FC-PHEV) and Extended Range Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FC-EREV). The simulation framework developed considers the barriers and how to avoid them through the implementation of a set of fuel management rules. The findings indicate that hybrid powertrains achieve greater ranges and lower greenhouse gas emissions, opening the door to introduce these vehicles onto the market without the need to wait till the main barrier, the hydrogen refuelling infrastructure, is fully developed.

Techno-Economic Investigation of Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure for Heavy-Duty Vehicles in Canada

Techno-Economic Investigation of Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure for Heavy-Duty Vehicles in Canada

Hydrogen Gas Refueling Infrastructure for Heavy-Duty Trucks: A Feasibility Analysis

Abstract In view of serious environmental problems occurring around the world and in particular climate change caused significantly by dangerous CO2 emissions into the biosphere in the developmental process, it has become imperative to identify alternative and cleaner sources of energy. Compressed hydrogen is being considered as a potential fuel for heavy-duty applications because it will substantially reduce toxic greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutant emissions. The cost of hydrogen will be the main element in the acceptance of compressed hydrogen internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles in the marketplace because of its effect on the levelized cost of driving. This paper investigates the feasibility of developing a nationwide network of hydrogen refueling infrastructure with the aim to assist in a conversion of long-haul, heavy-duty (LHHD) truck fleet from diesel fuel to hydrogen. This initiative is taken in order to reduce vehicle emissions and support commitments to the climate plans reinforcing active transportation infrastructure together with new transit infrastructure and zero-emission vehicles. Two methods based on constant and variable traffics, using data about hydrogen infrastructure and ICE vehicles, were created to estimate fueling conditions for LHHD truck fleet. Furthermore, a thorough economic study was carried out on several test cases to evaluate how diverse variables affect the final selling price of hydrogen. This gave an understanding of what elements go into the pricing of hydrogen and if it can compete with diesel in the trucking market. Results revealed that the cost to purchase green hydrogen is the utmost part in the pump price of hydrogen. Due to the variety in hydrogen production, there is no defined cost, which renders estimates difficult. Moreover, it was found that the pump price of green hydrogen is on average 239% more expensive than diesel fuel. The methodology proposed and models created in this feasibility study may serve as a valuable tool for future techno-economics of hydrogen refueling stations for other types of ICE fleets or fuel cell vehicles.

Effects of drivetrain hybridization on fuel economy, performance and costs of a fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle

Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs) are considered to be the most attractive long-term option for passenger cars. Several barriers, such as cost, durability and hydrogen refueling infrastructure, must be overcome for a wider use of FCHEVs. In this paper, a mid-sized FCHEV is modeled and simulated in ADVISOR to analyze the influence of hybridization factor on vehicle performance and costs. The results are compared with those of the Toyota Mirai in order to find the optimum size of the fuel cell stack and the number of battery modules that meet various driving requirements, minimize hydrogen consumption and vehicle cost. The best results are obtained by reducing the fuel cell stack power by 58%. A 7.7% increase in equivalent fuel economy (71.6 MPGe) and a reduction of 25% in the vehicle cost is achieved.

Hydrogen economy transition plan: A case study on Ontario

<abstract> A shift towards a "hydrogen economy" can reduce carbon emissions, increase penetration of variable renewable power generation into the grid, and improve energy security. The deployment of hydrogen technologies promises major contributions to fulfilling the economy's significant energy needs while also reducing urban pollution emissions and the overall carbon footprint and moving towards a circular economy. Using the Canadian province of Ontario as an example, this paper prioritizes certain recommendations for near-term policy actions, setting the stage for long-term progress to reach the zero-emissions target by 2050. To roll out hydrogen technologies in Ontario, we recommend promptly channeling efforts into deployment through several short-, mid-, and long-term strategies. Hydrogen refueling infrastructure on Highway 401 and 400 Corridors, electrolysis for the industrial sector, rail infrastructure and hydrogen locomotives, and hydrogen infrastructure for energy hubs and microgrids are included in strategies for the near term. With this infrastructure, more Class 8 large and heavy vehicles will be ready to be converted into hydrogen fuel cell power in the mid-term. Long-term actions such as Power-to-Gas, hydrogen-enriched natural gas, hydrogen as feedstock for products (e.g., ammonia and methanol), and seasonal and underground storage of hydrogen will require immediate financial and policy support for research and technology development. </abstract>

Prospects of the hydrogen-based mobility in the private vehicle market. A social perspective in Denmark

In 2017, the transportation sector in the European Union was responsible for 27% of the total greenhouse gas emissions, of which road transportation accounted for 71.7%. As a result of the EU policy to reduce the total greenhouse gas emissions by at least 40% in 2030 compared to 1990 levels, a social acceptance of a new technology like hydrogen in transportation is important. This study investigates the factors that may affect the public's acceptance of hydrogen-powered vehicles in Denmark. To this end, four major hypotheses were stated, assuming the direct effect of factors such as technology and environmental awareness, financial status and infrastructure pertaining to the social acceptance of hydrogen-based private road vehicles in the transportation market. The results showed that most of the hypotheses can be confirmed, including environmental awareness, limited refuelling infrastructure as well as media support for this market. These factors can be said to have an impact on one's willingness to accept or even purchase a fuel cell electric vehicle in the near future, while knowledge of and prior experience with this type of technology, along with an upgrade of the hydrogen refuelling infrastructure, may prove to contribute positively to ‘greener’ transportation.

Macro-Level optimization of hydrogen infrastructure and supply chain for zero-emission vehicles on a canadian corridor

Abstract The transportation sector has been the largest contributor to emissions and pollution in Canada. Climate and public health have been negatively affected by the consumption of fossil fuels by conventional vehicles. The rollout of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) has not yet occurred due to a conundrum. Specifically, a refueling infrastructure is required for the mass deployment of FCEVs, but the commercialization of FCEVs is required for investments, thus leading to the question of which will be required first, vehicle commercialization or hydrogen refueling stations. This paper develops a multi-objective model to determine the optimal sizes and locations of the hydrogen infrastructure needed to generate and distribute hydrogen for the key Highway Corridor (HWY 401) in Ontario. The model is used to aid the early-stage transition plan for the conversion of conventional vehicles to FCEVs in Ontario by proposing a feasible solution to the infrastructure dilemma posed by the initial adoption of hydrogen as fuel in the general market. The health benefit from the pollution reduction is also determined to show the potential social and economic incentives of using FCEVs. The results show that hydrogen production and delivery cost can reduce from $22.7/kg H2 in a 0.1% market share scenario to $14.7/kg H2 in a 1% market share scenario. The environmental and health benefit of developing hydrogen refueling infrastructure for heavy-duty vehicles is 1.63 million dollar per year and 1.45 million dollars per year, respectively. Also, every kilogram of H2 can avoid 11.09 kg CO2 from entering the atmosphere. In a 1% market share scenario, proposed hydrogen network avoids more than 37,000 tonnes CO2 per year.