Properties Of Hydrocolloids Research Articles

CURRENT PERSPECTIVES ON THE EFFECTS OF MAIN TYPES OF CARRAGEENANS ON THE HUMAN BODY

The relevance of studying carrageenans (red seaweed extracts) stems from the need to address a medical and scientific issue concerning the limited depth of understanding regarding their effects on the human body. The purpose of this study is to analyze current scientific literature on the effects of the primary types of carrageenans—kappa, iota, and lambda—and to evaluate the safety and efficacy of these food additives in the food industry. Results and discussion. Due to their hydrocolloidal properties, carrageenans contribute to the formation of stable structures in various food matrices, making them a key ingredient in the production of dairy and meat products, as well as in products made from plant ingredients. On the other hand, due to their structural and functional diversity, carrageenans are used in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. According to modern scientific research, the external use of these biopolymers is considered safe. Moreover, experimental studies have shown that carrageenans have antioxidant properties, demonstrate a wide range of antiviral effects, and are effective against various viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, dengue virus, herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, HIV, rabies virus, papillomavirus, influenza virus, and rhinoviruses. It has been established that different types of dietary undegraded carrageenans can significantly affect the gastrointestinal tract, namely, digestion processes - proteolysis. In vitro results have demonstrated that carrageenans can inhibit the activity of key gastrointestinal enzymes such as gastric pepsin and pancreatic trypsin. One of the potential toxic effects of orally consuming food additives E407 and E407a is the disruption of protein digestion in the gastrointestinal tract, leading to a deficiency in essential amino acids due to the inhibition of proteolysis. To gain a deeper understanding of these effects, further in-depth studies are needed to explore the biochemical mechanisms by which different types of carrageenans affect the gastrointestinal tract, as well as to investigate the dose-dependent nature of these changes.

Characterization of Hydrocolloids Extracted from Fenugreek and Sweet Basil Seeds and Their Effect on Rheological Properties of Wheat Starch Paste

Starch-hydrocolloid systems are crucial texturizing agents, ingredients and additives in many food products. The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of extraction temperature on the composition and properties of hydrocolloids extracted from milled fenugreek and sweet basil seeds, as well as the effect of the obtained non-starch polysaccharide preparations on the rheological properties of wheat starch paste. Hydrocolloids were extracted from milled seeds of fenugreek and sweet basil at room temperature (PFRT and PSBRT, respectively) and at 70 °C (PF70 and PSB70, respectively), with the extraction yields ranging from 32 to 47%. Extracted hydrocolloids contained polysaccharides (mainly high molar mass galactomannan) and protein. Preparations extracted at 70 °C from fenugreek (PF70) and sweet basil (PSB70) seeds were characterized by a higher content of polyphenols (16.2% and 50.9%, respectively), as well as higher antioxidant properties compared to preparations extracted at room temperature (PFRT and PSBRT). The 6% share of the fenugreek and sweet basil seed preparations obtained by extraction at room temperature increased the consistency index and reduced the flow behavior index compared to the starch paste without the preparations. The share of fenugreek seed and sweet basil preparations increased (p < 0.05) the tan δ parameter of the starch paste compared to the starch paste without the preparations.

The potential of hydrocolloid-modified fish gelatine in substituting non-halal gelatine for halal dessert cuisine

Gelatine is one of the essential ingredients in dessert making that enhances product development. As porcine and bovine gelatines are exquisite ingredients in many food products, especially in desserts, religious and cultural restrictions need to be considered. The limits in religions on porcine and bovine gelatine consumption contribute to mammal gelatine substitutes such as fish gelatines. However, the fish gelatine has lower thermal and rheological properties compared to mammalian gelatines. The lower rheological properties decrease the mechanical strength, gelling mechanism, and capability to stabilize in dessert products. Hydrocolloid-modified fish gelatines can overcome such drawbacks by improving their gel properties. This study reviewed the physical and chemical properties of different hydrocolloids used to modify fish gelatines which are agar with locust bean gum, carrageenan with locust bean gum, and gellan with calcium chloride, and their potential to emulate the texture and sensory properties of non-halal gelatine in dessert products. The study of modified fish gelatine with hydrocolloids can be a learning paradigm among food service establishments to intensify the need to explore the components used in food manufacturers and food industries. The new research that introduces hydrocolloid-modified gelatine will give various selections in creating new products without the intervention of non-halal or forbidden substances, especially in the gelatine-based dessert.

Comparative study of the rheology and texture of konjac glucomannan-xanthan gum complexes in water and simulated gastric fluid and their effect on gastric emptying

The viscosity of natural hydrocolloids plays as an essential role in body weight loss. However, the viscosity of natural hydrocolloids may change dramatically in the complicated gastrointestinal tract, especially in mixed hydrocolloid systems where interactions occur. These changes can be flexible. Here, the rheological and textural characteristics for the combination of konjac glucomannan (KGM) and xanthan gum (XAG) in water and simulated gastric fluid (SGF), as well as the effects on gastric emptying were explored. The results showed the viscosity, elastic modulus and textural parameters (firmness, consistency, adhesiveness, and cohesion) of the high-ratio KGM/XAG complexes in water were significantly higher than those in SGF. In contrast the opposite was true for the low-ratio KGM/XAG complexes. The viscosity of the equal proportional complexes was significantly lower in water than in SGF, but the textural parameters were significantly higher in SGF than in water. The interactions between KGM and XAG were concentration-dependent, more potent at low concentrations and weaker at higher concentrations. Dynamic gastric emptying ex vivo results showed no significant difference between the complexes of different ratios, but they were significantly higher than single KGM. The high pH and viscosity of digestives were highly correlated with delayed gastric emptying. In conclusion, viscosity should be accurately described when it comes to viscosity retarding gastric emptying because of the huge difference in viscosity between water and SGF. These results contribute to a deeper understanding of the interactions between the physicochemical properties of hydrocolloids and the human body and provide a basis for the targeted design of hydrocolloid structures.

The use of xanthan gum in a milk-containing ice cream with the whey protein microparticulate

Hydrocolloids of stabilization systems are necessary components in ice cream production. They influence viscosity, stabilization of structural elements and melting rate. Their role is especially important in production of ice cream with the low content of fat and nonfat milk solids. Today, specialized stabilization systems for production of such ice cream are absent. Moreover, when choosing stabilization systems, there are problems of economic character that are linked with an increase in prices on the effective polysaccharide — locust bean gum. The aim of the research was substantiation of the composition of the effective formulation of hydrocolloids using their available variety, xanthan gum, to use in production of milk-containing ice cream (with the reduced content of fat and dry nonfat milk substances). To achieve the best quality indicators, a whey protein microparticulate was introduced into milk-containing ice cream. Based on the synergetic properties of hydrocolloids in terms of dynamic viscosity, the composition of four formulations was determined with the content of xanthan gum of 8.6% (in samples 1 and 2), 16% (in sample 3) and 3% (in sample 4). Ice cream with the complex stabilization system of the trademark Cremodan 334 was produced as a control sample. The following indicators were determined in all samples: dynamic viscosity, viscoelastic characteristics (hardness, adhesion strength, gumminess), melting rate, condition and dispersity of the air phase and ice crystals. All developed formulations were superior to the control sample in terms of viscosity by 1.2–2 times. It has been found that replacement of the kappa-carrageenan fraction with iota-carrageenan in combination with guar gum and xanthan gum in an amount of 50% leads to a decrease in viscosity by 1.3 times. A reduction of visco-elastic characteristics was noted in the samples of hydrocolloid formulations under study. When using iota-carrageenan (samples 2 and 4), a notable reduction of thermal stability of ice cream was revealed in sample 4. Furthermore, a decrease in dispersity of the air phase was observed; the content of air bubbles with a size of 50 µm reduced by almost 30%. Based on the results of the investigations, it has been established that the formulation of hydrocolloids of ice cream sample 1, which consists of mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids, guar gum, xanthan gum and kappa-carrageenan, allows obtaining a product with technologically necessary quality indicators and the most cream-like consistency.

Alginate-Based Emulsions and Hydrogels for Extending the Shelf Life of Banana Fruit.

Edible coatings are used to extend the shelf life of various fruit, including bananas (Musa from the Musaceae family). After harvest, bananas reach the ripening and subsequent senescence phase. During senescence, the quality of the fruit deteriorates as it takes on a brown color and the tissue becomes soft. To extend the shelf life of such a fruit, effective methods to delay ripening are required. In this study, an alginate-based emulsion, i.e., an oil-in-water emulsion of lemongrass essential oil in alginate, was used to combine the mechanical properties of hydrocolloids with the water barrier properties of the oil phase. The emulsion was sprayed onto the whole fruit with an airbrush, and calcium chloride was added to promote gelling of the alginate. Compared to the uncoated fruit, coated bananas remained uniform in appearance (peel color) for longer, showed less weight loss, had a delay in the formation of total soluble solids, and in the consumption of organic acids. The shelf life of the coated fruit was extended by up to 11 days, at least 5 days more than uncoated bananas. Overall, the proposed coating could be suitable for reducing the global amount of food waste.

Artificial intelligence-based prediction of the rheological properties of hydrocolloids for plant-based meat analogues.

Methylcellulose has been applied as a primary binding agent to control the quality attributes of plant-based meat analogues. H owever, a great deal of effort has been made to search for hydrocolloids to replace methylcellulose because of increasing awareness of clean labels. In this study, a machine learning framework was proposed in order to describe and predict the flow behavior of six hydrocolloid solutions, and the predicted viscosities were correlated with the textural features of their corresponding plant-based meat analogues. Different shear-thinning and Newtonian behaviors were observed depending on the type of hydrocolloid and the shear rate. Methylcellulose exhibited an increasing viscosity pattern with increasing temperature, compared to the other hydrocolloids. The machine learning algorithms (random forest and multilayer perceptron models) showed a better viscosity fitting performance than the constitutive equations (power law and Cross models). In addition, three hyperparameters of the multilayer perceptron model (optimizer, learning rate, and the number of hidden layers) were tuned using the Bayesian optimization algorithm. The optimized multilayer perceptron model exhibited superior performance in viscosity prediction (R2 = 0.9944-0.9961/RMSE = 0.0545-0.0708). Furthermore, the machine learning-predicted viscosities overall showed similar patterns to the textural parameters of the meat analogues. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Hydrocolloids for tissue engineering and 3D bioprinting

Hydrocolloids, derived from plants, marine, and microbial sources, have become research favorites due to their unique properties. This article provides an overview of the extraction methods, from chemical to enzymatic, to obtain hydrocolloids. Distinctive properties of hydrocolloids, such as high swelling capacity, tunable features, and rapid gelation ability, have gained significant attention recently and have started to be used in tissue engineering and 3D bioprinting. Hydrocolloids will play substantial roles in advancing biomedical products and contributing to improving human health.

Characteristics of Ice Cream with The Addition of Purple Sweet Potato and Porang Flour as A Stabilizer

Purple sweet potato and porang are local food ingredients that have potential as stabilizers because they have good hydrocolloid properties. This study was to determine the effect of the addition of porang flour and purple sweet potato with different percentages on ice cream characteristics. This research was prepared using the Complete Randomized Design method in a Nested pattern with 2 factors, first factor (A) is the addition of purple sweet potato(A1) and porang flour (A2), while the second factor (B) is different percentages (0%(B1), 1% (B2), 2% (B3), and 3% (B4)). The parameters observed in this study consisted of overrun, melting time, and emulsion stability (%). The results showed that the addition of purple sweet potato and porang flour with different percentages had a very significant effect (P < 0.01) on overrun and emulsion stability, and a significant effect (P < 0.05) on melting time. The use of purple sweet potato as a stabilizer produced ice cream with better overrun value and melting time compared to ice cream with porang flour stabilizer, but the use of porang flour as a stabilizer produced ice cream with better emulsion stability. The use of purple sweet potato and porang flour with a concentration of 1% produced ice cream with the best characteristics.

Analysis of yield and types of carrageenan from different strains at Kupang Bay seaweed production center, East Nusa Tenggara

Kappaphycus alvarezzi is a species widely cultivated by the seaweed farmers surrounding Kupang Bay since the early 2000s. K. alvarezzi is sold as raw materials for the carrageenan industry as its hydrocolloid properties are used as emulsion and suspension stabilizers in the food and pharmaceutical industries. This study determines the yield and identifies the type of carrageenan from algal farms at Kupang Bay. Samples are collected from five production centers, then extracted at the Wet Laboratory at the Undana Faculty of Animal Husbandry, Marine and Fisheries in Kupang; and the extracted carrageenan is then analyzed using infrared spectroscopy at the Laboratory of the Faculty of Advanced and Multidisciplinary Technology Universitas Airlangga in Surabaya. The results showed that the highest yield of carrageenan was seaweed from Sulamu (25.72%) then, followed by Oenaek (19.6%), Tablolong A (13.48%), South Semau (11%), and Tablolong B as the lowest yield (9.6% ). Both the presence of functional groups such as D-galactose-4-sulphate and 3,6 anhydro D-galactose groups and the absence of D-galactose-2-sulfate and the 3,6 anhydrogalactose-2-sulfate group, concluded that the type of carrageenan produced in Kupang Bay is the kappa carrageenan.

PHOTODIELECTRIC CHARACTERIZATION OF LIGHT-DRIVEN Au/TiO2 NANOMOTORS IN LIQUID MEDIUM

This article reports on photodielectric properties of hydrocolloids of TiO2 particles and Au/TiO2 hybrid particles of lateral dimension of ∼200 nm. Illumination of the colloids with visible light did not cause measurable changes in their electrical conductivity, while the application of UV (365 nm) light led to photoinduced increase in conductivity of up to 2%. The photogeneration of ions in water, regardless of the presence of the particles, makes a dominant contribution to the photoinduced increase in conductivity of the colloids.

Study of Varietal Differences in the Composition of Heteropolysaccharides of Oil Flax and Fiber Flax

Flaxseed mucilage and its derivatives have been extensively investigated over the last decade, mainly due to their inherent techno-functional (thickening, gelling, interface-stabilizing, and film-forming) properties that are relevant in the food industry. Hydrocolloids are used to modify food properties, such as for stabilization and emulsion, and are also used to control the microstructure of the food. Increasing research attention has been paid to the application of hydrocolloid materials in gel particles for encapsulation or texture control in food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and probiotic products. Thus, it is important to investigate the properties of hydrocolloids manufactured from various sources and explore their possible applications in the food industry. The applied nature of the study of plant mucus substances is associated with the ever-increasing demand for their use in the food, cosmetic, and pharmacological industries, determining the related research priorities, including the development of the most effective methods for the extraction of glycans and the search for highly productive raw materials for the production of polysaccharides. The aim of this work was to study varietal differences in the compositions of heteropolysaccharides in the mucus samples of oilseed and fiber flax varieties using a modern methodological approach for obtaining glycans based on the ultrasonic extraction of polysaccharides. The seeds of 10 flax varieties were studied, differing in their morphotype, place, and time of creation. The obtained results indicated significant differences in the quantitative and qualitative compositions of the heteropolysaccharides of flax seeds of various varieties. The contents of reducing sugars in the studied varieties ranged from 5.61 ± 0.01 to 18.81 ± 0.01 mg/g, indicating significant differences in the structural organization of glycans in different flax varieties. Additionally, the results obtained here allowed us to conclude that the range of reducing sugars for flax heteropolysaccharides is significantly less than this range for oilseed flax varieties. The obtained results of the study of the composition of flax seed heteropolysaccharides allowed us to consider them as selection trait and genetic markers.

Functional and technological properties of hydrocolloids: A comparative analysis

Hydrocolloids render certain properties to food products. Hydrocolloids are different in nature, but all of them can form colloidal solutions with designed properties. The market offers a wide range of animal and vegetable hydrocolloids. For instance, gelatin is in high demand in the food industry because its functional and technological properties make it possible to develop foods with particular technological characteristics. Gelatin is also used in pharmacy and biotechnology. This article introduces a comparative analysis of functional and technological properties of animal hydrocolloids obtained by different technologies in Tajikistan and Russia. Both samples demonstrated good water-binding capacity and viscosity. The resulting gels had the best foaming at pH 4.8 and a whipping temperature of 10°C. The foam resistance was about 98-100%. A higher whipping temperature resulted in unstable foam with poor foaming performance. The best quality profile belonged to the Halal collagen hydrocolloid from Tajikistan. Its technology was different from the methods used in Russia.

Rheological performance of film-forming solutions and barrier properties of films fabricated from cold plasma-treated high methoxyl apple pectin and crosslinked by Ca2+: Impact of plasma treatment voltage

Sustainable and “green” technologies, such as cold plasma are gaining attention in recent times for improving the functional properties of hydrocolloids. Chemical modifications of hydrocolloids require several chemicals and solvents, which are not environment-friendly. The major objective of the study was to understand the impact of plasma treatment (170–230 V|15 min) on the rheology of film-forming solutions (FFS) and the barrier properties of pectin films. The film-forming properties of plasma-treated pectin were investigated in the presence of two plasticizers, namely, glycerol and polyethylene glycol (PEG) 400. The effects of cross-linking by CaCl2 on the rheology of FFS and barrier properties of the films were discussed. A voltage-dependent decrease in the apparent viscosity of FFS was observed. The viscoelastic properties of the FFS were enhanced due to cross-linking. Glycerol exhibited a better plasticizing effect than PEG. Cross-linking and increasing voltage synergistically contributed towards lower oxygen and carbon dioxide transmission rates. The moisture sorption rate and capacity of the films increased with the voltage of the treatment. The resistance to extension of the films made from glycerol and PEG decreased with voltage, with no significant change in extensibility. On the other hand, the cross-linking by Ca2+ and plasma treatment enhanced the resistance to extension for the films made from both the plasticizers. While the increasing hydrophilicity and opacity of the films were a major drawback of plasma modification, the increase in UV barrier property of the films was an advantage of the modification.

Chemical, technological, and rheological properties of hydrocolloids from sesame (Sesamum indicum) with potential food applications

Hydrocolloids are hydrophilic biopolymers which are widely used in the food industry due to their functional properties. In the present study, sesame hydrocolloids ( Sesamum indicum ) were obtained and, consequently, their physicochemical, proximal composition, functional, and rheological properties were evaluated to establish their potential applications in the food industry. Methods: Hydrocolloids were obtained from sesame seeds at 80 °C on evaluating the pH at 3, 7, and 10 and specific flour: water ratios during the solubilization process. Results: The hydrocolloids obtained had a good relationship between carbohydrates and proteins, which increased their potential use in the development of colloidal systems. The samples had high water holding capacity, solubility, and appropriate emulsifying and foaming properties. The hydrocolloids showed non-Newtonian shear-thinning behavior, adjusted to the Carreau-Yasuda model. Based on the dynamic viscoelastic rheological test, samples were characterized as a gel-like state when storage modulus values were higher than the loss modulus in the frequency and temperature ranges investigated. Conclusion: The findings revealed that sesame seeds can be considered appropriate raw material for extracting hydrocolloids as an alternative for obtaining natural food ingredients with interesting functional and rheological properties, with further applications in the development and formulation of micro-structured products.

Three-Dimensional Printing Properties of Polysaccharide Hydrocolloids-Unrinsed Sturgeon Surimi Complex Hydrogels.

Herein, the microstructure and mechanical properties of hydrogels consisting of unrinsed sturgeon surimi (URSS) and plant-derived polysaccharides such as κ-carrageenan (KC), konjac gum (KG), xanthan gum (XG), guar gum (GG) and sodium alginate (SA), were studied by texture analysis, rheological measurement and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Rheological results showed that the apparent viscosity, storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) of URSS increased by addition of KC, KG, GG and SA. The gel strength of resultant surimi products fabricated with KG/URSS mixture was significantly higher than that of other groups. KG could significantly improve the hardness (44.14 ± 1.14 N), chewiness (160.34 ± 8.33 mJ) and cohesiveness (0.56 ± 0.02) of the unrinsed surimi gel. Adding SA and KC had no significant effect on the textural characteristics of printed gels. However, an apparent decrease in the relevant mechanical properties of printed hydrogels was observed when XG and GG were added into surimi. SEM indicated that the incorporation of KG and KC could further integrate the gel structure of URSS as compared to hindering the cross-linking of surimi protein by XG and GG, which were in accordance with gel strength and water-holding capacity. These results provided useful information to regulate the 3D printing performance in functionalized surimi-based material.

The impact of cellulose nanocrystals on the rheology of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose and sodium alginate

AbstractAt present, the physical properties of hydrocolloids limit their wide application in food industry. To improve the viscoelasticity of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and sodium alginate (SA), cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) were added into CMC and SA solutions to regulate the non‐Newtonian flow behaviors of composite systems under different conditions. The rheological properties of CMC/CNCs or SA/CNCs composite systems were studied using steady rheological measurements, dynamic rheological measurements, and creep compliance experiments. It was found that the viscosities and elastic modulus of CMC were positively related to CNCs concentrations in acid, neutral or alkaline environments. When the CNCs content was higher than 5% at pH 9.45, the gelation of CMC was accelerated, and the gelation strength was increased. The damping factor of SA decreased with increasing calcium ions contents. When calcium ions content was higher than 0.07%, the damping factor of SA was less than 1, indicating that SA system achieved gel transformation. The effect of CNCs on the apparent viscosity, shear stress, and storage modulus of CMC was more obvious in comparison to that of SA. Overall, as a rheology modifier, CNCs can minimize the contents of food colloids in any functional fluid while maintaining the thickening rheology.

Effect of Chilled Storage on Antioxidant Capacities and Volatile Flavors of Synbiotic Yogurt Made with Probiotic Yeast Saccharomyces boulardii CNCM I-745 in Combination with Inulin.

Fermentation of available sugars in milk by yogurt starter culture initially and later by Saccharomyces boulardii (Probiotic yeast) improves the bioavailability of nutrients and produces bioactive substances and volatile compounds that enhance consumer acceptability. The combination of S. boulardii, a unique species of probiotic yeast, and inulin, an exopolysaccharide used as a prebiotic, showed remarkable probiotic and hydrocolloid properties in dairy products. The present study was designed to study the effect of fermentation and storage on antioxidant and volatile capacities of probiotic and synbiotic yogurt by incorporation of S. boulardii and inulin at 1%, 1.5%, and 2% (w/v), compared with the probiotic and control plain yogurt. All samples were stored at 4 °C, and during these four weeks, they were analyzed in terms of their antioxidant and volatile compounds. The synbiotic yogurt samples having inulin and S. boulardii displayed significantly higher DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radical activity values and more values of TPC (total phenol contents) than control plain yogurt. A total of 16 volatile compounds were identified in S5-syn2 and S4-syn1.5, while S3-syn1 and S2-P had 14, compared with the control S1-C plain yogurt samples, which had only 6. The number of volatile compounds increased with the increasing concentration of inulin throughout the storage period. Therefore, this novel synbiotic yogurt with higher antioxidant and volatile compounds, even with chilling storage conditions, will be a good choice for consumer acceptability.

Influence of Process Operation on the Production of Exopolysaccharides in Arthrospira platensis and Chlamydomonas asymmetrica

Extracellular polysaccharides, or exopolysaccharides are high–molecular weight sugar-based polymers expressed and secreted by many microorganisms. As host organisms, the functions of exopolysaccharides are diverse, ranging from physical protection via biofilm formation, adhesion, and water retention to biological functions that are not entirely understood such as viral attachment inhibition. Industrial applications of exopolysaccharides can be found in food texture modification; for example, utilizing the hydrocolloidal properties of exopolysaccharides for thickening and gelling purposes to improve food quality and texture. Over the last decade, biologically active exopolysaccharides produced by microalgae have received attention for their potential as antiviral, antibacterial and antioxidative compounds and in the applications. However, relatively low yield and productivity are the limiting factors for full-scale industrial application. In this study, the well-known prokaryotic phototrophic microorganismArthrospira platensisand the comparatively unknown eukaryotic unicellular green algaChlamydomonas asymmetricawere used to evaluate the influence of different process parameters on exopolysaccharides formation and productivity. In addition to the essential control variables (light and temperature), the influence of operational techniques (batch and turbidostat) were also investigated. Although the two studied algae are differently affected by above parameters. The light intensity was the most influential parameter observed in the study, leading to differences in exopolysaccharides concentrations by a factor of 10, with the highest measured concentration forA. platensisofcEPS= 0.138 g L−1at 180 μmol m−2s−1and forC. asymmetricaofcEPS= 1.2 g L−1at 1,429 μmol m−2s−1. In continuous systems, the achieved exopolysaccharides concentrations were low compared to batch process, however, slightly higher productivities were reached. Regardless of all screened process parameters,C. asymmetricais the better organism in terms of exopolysaccharides concentrations and productivity.

The Effectiveness of Extruded-Cooked Lentil Flour in Preparing a Gluten-Free Pizza with Improved Nutritional Features and a Good Sensory Quality.

Extruded-cooked lentil (ECL) flour was used to fortify (10/100 g dough) gluten-free pizza, which was compared with rice/corn-based pizza (control), and with pizza containing native lentil (NL) flour. Viscoamylograph and Mixolab data evidenced the hydrocolloid properties of ECL flour (initial viscosity = 69.3 BU), which contained pregelatinized starch. The use of ECL flour made it possible to eliminate hydroxymethylcellulose (E464), obtaining a clean label product. Both NL and ECL pizzas showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher contents of proteins (7.4 and 7.3/100 g, respectively) than the control pizza (4.4/100 g) and could be labelled as “source of proteins” according to the Regulation (EC) No. 1924/2006. In addition, NL and ECL pizzas were characterized by higher contents of bioactive compounds, including anthocyanins, and by higher in vitro antioxidant activity (1.42 and 1.35 µmol Trolox/g d.m., respectively) than the control pizza (1.07 µmol Trolox/g d.m.). However, NL and ECL pizzas also contained small amounts of undigestible oligosaccharides, typically present in lentils (verbascose = 0.92–0.98 mg/g d.m.; stachyose = 4.04–5.55 mg/g d.m.; and raffinose = 1.98–2.05 mg/g d.m.). No significant differences were observed in the liking level expressed by consumers between ECL and control pizzas.