Wildlife Hunting Research Articles

Multi-faceted approaches to understanding changes in wildlife and livelihoods in a protected area: a conservation case study from the Central African Republic

SUMMARYCommercialized hunting and trade of wildlife are the largest threats to mammal populations and human livelihoods in the Congo Basin. It is widely recognized that the lives of humans and wildlife in this region are inextricably intertwined. However, few studies have attempted to integrate both human and wildlife dimensions using ethnographic data to better contextualize the trade and its ecological impacts. This paper outlines a methodological approach that combines ethnographic research, ecological line transects and market surveys in the Dzanga Sangha Reserve (Central African Republic). Results from each research component are reported separately in order to provide examples of how each would answer specific questions about the status of wildlife populations and the scale of hunting within a protected area. The integrated analysis of ethnographic, market and ecological datasets clarifies synergistic impacts operating in the region and provides a more nuanced understanding of changes in both the forest and the market based on information gleaned from hunting practices and hunter interviews. This research demonstrates the potential pitfalls of using a singular approach to make recommendations on complex human-environment issues. Such cross-disciplinary mixed-methods approaches will further understandings of dynamic wildlife populations and forge more informed environmental policy recommendations.

Biodiversity study of a smallholder-protected forest ecosystem in Leyte, Philippines

A study was conducted to assess the floral and faunal diversity within a smallholder-protected forest ecosystem in mid-western Leyte Province, Philippines. A total of 1903 plants belonging to 325 species and 93 animal species were recorded in the survey and ethno-faunal assessment. There were 648, 676 and 579 plants recorded for the protected zone, buffer zone, and multiple-use zone, respectively. Recorded fauna included 11 species of mammals belonging to nine families, 39 species of birds belonging to 20 families, 16 species of reptiles belonging to nine families, and 27 species of amphibians belonging to five families. Eight globally threatened faunal species are still found in the area but are expected to vanish if wildlife hunting continues. Information and education campaigns on biodiversity conservation as well as alternative livelihood opportunities for smallholders are recommended to conserve the biodiversity and ecosystem services of the area.

Economic growth and trend changes in wildlife hunting

Petty-Clark’s law suggests that as the economy of a country develops, its proportion of primary industries declines while those of its secondary and tertiary industries increase. Traditionally, hunting has played a crucial role in a country’s food supply; however, currently, it is increasingly viewed as a leisure activity. This paper empirically examines whether Petty-Clark’s law holds in case of hunting in European countries. The results reveal that the proportion of hunters across countries increases when the per capita GDP is between 5,000 and 15,000 USD. Once the per capita GDP crosses the 15,000 USD mark, two major trends are detected: the number of hunters continues to increase in some countries but decreases in some other countries. Finally, the number of hunters in a country stabilizes when its per capita GDP reaches around 25,000 to 30,000 USD.

Invasive species and bushmeat hunting contributing to wildlife conservation: the case of feral pigs in a Neotropical wetland

AbstractAn unusual combination of two major conservation threats, invasive species and bushmeat hunting, has had a positive outcome for wildlife conservation in the Brazilian Pantanal. The Pantanal is a wetland and one of the few non-protected areas in the Neotropics where people live but rarely hunt native wildlife. To understand why wildlife hunting is not a major conservation issue in the Pantanal an exploratory survey, semi-structured interviews, skull collection and tooth wear analysis of feral pig Sus scrofa, white-lipped peccary Tayassu pecari and collared peccary Pecari tajacu were conducted, and hunting registers distributed, in the central region of the Pantanal. The results showed that feral pigs are the main hunting target. Feral pigs are effectively acting as a replacement species for hunting of native wildlife because the pigs provide a constant, culturally acceptable, readily available and free source of meat and oil to remote ranches. We cannot evaluate, however, if the buffer from hunting that feral pigs provide to native wildlife outweigh this species’ potential negative ecological impacts.

SEROSURVEY OF BRUCELLA SPP. INFECTION IN THE KAFUE LECHWE (KOBUS LECHE KAFUENSIS) OF THE KAFUE FLATS IN ZAMBIA

One of the diseases of veterinary and public health importance affecting the Kafue lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis) on the Kafue flats is brucellosis, for which only scant information is available. During the 2003 (October), 2004 (December), and 2008 (July-December) hunting seasons in the Kafue flats, we conducted a study to determine the seroprevalence of Brucella spp. in the Kafue lechwe and to evaluate serologic tests for detection of Brucella spp. antibodies in lechwe. The Rose Bengal Test (RBT), competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA), and fluorescence polarization assay (FPA) were used. A total of 121 Kafue lechwe were hunted for disease investigations in 2003, 2004, and 2008 in the Kafue Flat Game Management Area. Of these, 21.6%, (95% confidence interval [CI]: 14.2-29.1%) had detectable antibodies to Brucella spp. The Kafue lechwe in Lochnivar National Park had higher antibody results than those in Blue Lagoon National Park (odds ratio=3.0; 95% CI: 0.94-9.4). Infection levels were similar in females (21.6%) and males (21.7%). Results were similar among RBT, FPA, cELISA tests, suggesting that these could effectively be used in diagnosing brucellosis in the Kafue lechwe. Our study demonstrates the presence of Brucella infections in the Kafue lechwe in two national parks located in the Kafue flats and further highlights the suitability of serologic assays for testing the Kafue lechwe. Because the Kafue lechwe is the most hunted wildlife species in Zambia, hunters need to be informed of the public health risk of Brucella spp. infection.

Wildlife hunting by indigenous tribes: a case study from Arunachal Pradesh, north-east India

AbstractHunting is a serious threat to wildlife worldwide. The rainforest-rich Arunachal Pradesh state of India, a biodiversity hotspot, is an area severely affected by indigenous hunting. The state has several indigenous tribes who hunt for food, trade, culture and leisure. Using semi-structured interviews and questionnaires we surveyed 184 individuals in 51 villages across four tribes for information on species hunted and hunting practices. A total of 33 mammalian species are reportedly hunted, of which only 11 were reported by hunters during formal interviews. The other 22 species were observed during casual visits, festivals and informal discussions. Of the species hunted 20 are Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List. Villagers now travel longer distances to hunt than they did a decade ago, suggesting a decline in wildlife populations around villages. The extent of offtake of mammals was related to the altitude of the village and the use of guns. Villagers living at higher altitudes and with guns appeared to hunt more. We also documented the importance of ritualistic hunting by some tribes. Additional research is required to estimate offtake and consumption rates of wild meat. Increasing conservation awareness and community-based conservation projects may assist in controlling the severity and extent of this hunting problem.

Snake prices and crocodile appetites: Aquatic wildlife supply and demand on Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia

Commercial trade is a major driver of over-exploitation of wild species, but the pattern of demand and how it responds to changes in supply is poorly understood. Here we explore the markets for snakes from Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia to evaluate future exploitation scenarios, identify entry points for conservation and, more generally, to illustrate the value of multi-scale analysis of markets to traded wildlife conservation. In Cambodia, the largest driver of snake exploitation is the domestic trade in snakes as crocodile food. We estimate that farmed crocodiles consume between 2.7 and 12.2 million snakes per year. The market price for crocodiles has been in decline since 2003, which, combined with rising prices for their food, has led to a reduced frequency of feeding and closure of small farms. The large farms that generate a disproportionate amount of the demand for snakes continue to operate in anticipation of future market opportunities, and preferences for snakes could help maintain demand if market prices for crocodiles rise to pre 2003 levels. In the absence of a sustained demand from crocodile farms, it is also possible that alternative markets will develop, such as one for human snack food. The demand for snakes, however, also depends on the availability of substitute resources, principally fish. The substitutability and low price elasticity of demand offers a relatively sustainable form of consumerism. Given the nature of these market drivers, addressing consumer preferences and limiting the protection of snakes to their breeding season are likely to be the most effective tools for conservation. This study highlights the importance of understanding the structure of markets and the behaviour of consumer demand prior to implementing regulations on wildlife hunting and trade.

Biodiversity conservation in community forests of Nepal: Rhetoric and reality

Community forests management in Nepal has been exemplified as one of the most successful programs for participatory resource management. The success of community forestry is described in terms of restoring degraded land and habitats, conserving biodiversity, increasing supply of forest products, empowering women and disadvantaged groups, generating rural incomes, and developing human resources. However, the contribution of existing community forest management practices to biodiversity conservation in the form of enhancing species diversity and ecosystem functioning is questionable. We reviewed the role of community forest management practices to biodiversity conservation based on published materials and our own observations. Practices such as seedling plantation; controlling wildlife hunting, forest fire and grazing; regulating forest encroachment; protecting soil erosion prone area and water resource area assist biodiversity conservation, paradoxically other practices such as species selection; removal of unwanted species during silvicultural activities; leaf litter collection; elite dominance in decision making; and traditional knowledge depletion have detrimental impact on biological diversity and ecosystem function of community managed forest.

PERFIL DA CAÇA E DOS CAÇADORES NA RESERVA DE DESENVOLVIMENTO SUSTENTÁVEL AMANÃ, AMAZONAS – BRASIl.

Hunting wildlife is forbidden by Brazilian federal legislation, although it is tolerated in specific situations. the activity is important as a source of protein to rural populations. the objective of this study is to describe hunting in four communities of Amanã Sustainable Development Reserve. Structured interviews were carried out with hunters themselves, as well as other members of the communities (n=238). In addition to that, a survey of hunted game was also carried out during the period of this study. In six months of monitoring of the four communities, 373 individuals were harvested; totalling 5,932.75 Kg. Mammals were the main group hunted, representing 91,42% of the total weight produced in hunting events. the results of the study indicate that the species most susceptible to hunting are Tayassu pecari, Dasyprocta fuliginosa, Cuniculus paca, Tapirus terrestres, Alouatta seniculus, Mazama americana and Mazama gouazoubira, the river turtles of genus Podocnemis, and also the Cracidae and Anatidae.

Bird species richness and diversity at montane Important Bird Area (IBA) sites in south-eastern Nigeria

SummaryThe mountains of south-eastern Nigeria are a western extension of the Cameroon mountain range, which is classified as an endemic bird area (EBA). Unlike its eastern extension in Cameroon, most of the ornithological surveys in the western extension of the Cameroon highlands in Nigeria have produced only limited checklists and inventories. There is a clear need for quantitative baseline data so that conservation problems can be identified. Twenty line transects covering a total transect length of 28.8 km were used to survey five sites (Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary, Oban Division and Okwangwo Division of Cross River National Park, Sankwala Mountains and Mbe Mountains) in the westernmost extension of the Cameroon Mountains EBA in south-eastern Nigeria. Vegetation measurements were taken to control for the potential confounding effect of variation in vegetation density and structure on detectability of birds between sites. The 193 bird species recorded in Afi, 158 in Sankwala, 124 in Oban, 100 in Mbe and 73 in Okwangwo Division included most of the Cameroon highlands restricted range species. The results show that the mountains of south-eastern Nigeria are important parts of the Cameroon EBA, particularly Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary. However these sites are threatened by fire and livestock grazing on the hilltops, shifting agriculture on the hillsides and lowlands, and logging for timber in some parts, as well as wildlife hunting for bushmeat.

Bushmeat Supply and Consumption in a Tropical Logging Concession in Northern Congo

Unsustainable hunting of wildlife for food empties tropical forests of many species critical to forest maintenance and livelihoods of forest people. Extractive industries, including logging, can accelerate exploitation of wildlife by opening forests to hunters and creating markets for bushmeat. We monitored human demographics, bushmeat supply in markets, and household bushmeat consumption in five logging towns in the northern Republic of Congo. Over 6 years we recorded 29,570 animals in town markets and collected 48,920 household meal records. Development of industrial logging operations led to a 69% increase in the population of logging towns and a 64% increase in bushmeat supply. The immigration of workers, jobseekers, and their families altered hunting patterns and was associated with increased use of wire snares and increased diversity in the species hunted and consumed. Immigrants hunted 72% of all bushmeat, which suggests the short-term benefits of hunting accrue disproportionately to "outsiders" to the detriment of indigenous peoples who have prior, legitimate claims to wildlife resources. Our results suggest that the greatest threat of logging to biodiversity may be the permanent urbanization of frontier forests. Although enforcement of hunting laws and promotion of alternative sources of protein may help curb the pressure on wildlife, the best strategy for biodiversity conservation may be to keep saw mills and the towns that develop around them out of forests.

Wildlife Crime in the Game Reserves of South Africa: A Research Note

A type of poaching of significant concern in South Africa is the trend toward the commercialized illegal hunting of wildlife for food on the nation's protected conservation areas. Very little research has addressed this crime in South Africa. To contribute to the knowledge, this research note discusses select results of an exploratory field study into the illegal wild game trade in South Africa. The nature of the trade is described and a wide variety of causes is identified. Policy recommendations to both prevent and control the problem are also discussed.

Conservation status of the asian small-clawed otter <i>Amblonyx cinereus</i> (Illiger, 1815) in Palawan, Philippines

The conservation status of Amblonyx cinereus in terms of abundance and threats along Pinamualan and Ilian streams in Dumaran, Palawan were assessed. Along Pinamualan stream, three out of 17 stations and one at Ilian stream were chosen as observation sites based on the abundance of otter’s spraints and dens. Six consecutive night observations were allotted for each station. Relevant information was obtained through guide questionnaire from 44 respondents in northern Palawan and Puerto Princesa City. Sixteen A. cinereus individuals were noted playing, running and swimming between 2300H to 0525H. Prevalent threats along the two streams include slash-and-burn agricultural practices, cutting of trees, quarrying, soil erosion, recreation activities, trapping and hunting of wildlife and human settlements. Interviews revealed that curiosity ranked first among the reasons for catching otters. Farmers and fishermen consider otters as pests and also hunt them for food and as pets. The relentless hunting and habitat destruction reflect a very poor implementation of the laws on wildlife and environmental protection in Palawan. Strict law enforcement, proper information and education campaign and alternative livelihood programs are needed to address the issues.

Why do models fail to assess properly the sustainability of duiker ( Cephalophus spp.) hunting in Central Africa?

Hunting of wildlife in Central Africa is largely considered to be unsustainable. Several studies indicate that most mammal species should already have disappeared from many Central African forests but markets continue to be supplied with bushmeat, with no sign of large scale extinction of the most common species. Most studies of the sustainability of duiker (Cephalophus spp.) hunting in Central Africa are based on the same index of hunting. We illustrate how uncertainty is accumulated in these estimations of sustainability. We show that the results obtained in different sites are not comparable because a variety of methods have been used to calculate the parameters of the model and each of the methods has different sources of error. For the assessment of maximum sustainable harvest for duikers, the studies reviewed differ mainly in the value chosen for the hypothetical adjustment factor, and the method used to calculate the rate of maximum population increase and to estimate duiker population densities. For the assessment of annual hunting offtake the studies differ mainly in the scale at which they were conducted (village or regional), and sampling and extrapolation methods. Without evaluation of accuracy and standardization of methods for the estimation of maximum sustainable harvest and annual offtake, conclusions regarding harvesting based on biological indices should be treated with extreme caution.

狩猟活動の衰退と野生動物に関する知識の関係:事例：セントラル・カラハリ・サンの少年たち

狩猟活動の衰退と野生動物に関する知識の関係:事例：セントラル・カラハリ・サンの少年たち

Research Communication: Biodiversity use through harvesting faunal resources from forests by the Mro tribe in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

An exploratory study was conducted on the hunting and gathering of wildlife by the Mro tribe in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHTs) of Bangladesh, highlighting the target animals, preference, frequency and various indigenous techniques of hunting. The farmers are primarily dependent on shifting cultivation and hunting is a secondary occupation, particularly important for poor people. Though the tribe rears some domestic animals for sacrificing on special occasions, game meat appears to be a highly welcomed dietary supplement. A total of 34 species of wildlife were harvested from forests, from insect larvae to elephants. Wild boar ranked first for rich and medium farmers, and monitor lizards were ranked second by all the farmers. The indigenous knowledge about their living patterns and animals has potential for use in commercial animal farming to fulfil the protein demand and improve the socio-economic condition of the Mro.

Wildlife hunting practices and bushmeat dynamics of the Banyangi and Mbo people of Southwestern Cameroon

The Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, an area of lowland tropical rainforest in southwestern Cameroon, was designed by the Government of Cameroon specifically to protect 10 species and one order ( Chelonia) of wildlife including some of the most endangered primates in Central and West Africa such as the drill ( Mandrillus leucophaeus) and chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes). The long-settled local communities surrounding the Sanctuary maintain user rights of the forest and its natural resources as long as the conservation goals of the protected area are not compromised. A three-year study assessed local communities’ hunting dynamics in and around the sanctuary. Ten village-based assistants weighed, sexed, and aged all animal carcasses harvested by the 96 hunters participating in the study from June 1999 to March 2002. Data on weapon type, use of meat, location of kill, and price for each killed animal were also collected. We compare bushmeat dynamics and hunting cultures of two tribes living on the periphery of the Sanctuary, the Banyangi and the Mbo. A total of 13 489 animals were harvested during the study period, 4656 by Banyangi and 8833 by Mbo. Our results suggest that the condition of bushmeat when sold by hunters, either fresh or smoked, does not appear to affect the price. Bushmeat was significantly cheaper than the alternative sources of protein available in the nearest town. Although both tribes appear to use similar weapon technologies and hunting techniques, they differ with respect to amounts harvested and bushmeat use. The tribe settled deep in the forest with no road access hunts more intensively and for commercial sale outside the region, while the tribe along the road consumes or sells most of their catch locally.

Correlates of wildlife snaring patterns in Tsavo West National Park, Kenya

Habitat loss and hunting are currently the twin threats to wildlife across the world. Hunting is such a threat across the tropics that some recent studies have estimated wildlife extraction at six times the sustainable rate in parts of Africa. The traditional methods of wildlife hunting, like setting traps and snares are no longer sustainable as the reasons for hunting are largely moving from subsistence to commercial. We assessed the spatial patterns of snaring activities against target species distribution, habitat types, distance from park border and security patrol efforts using a stratified random sampling design in Tsavo West National Park. Tsavo is not only the largest park in Kenya, but also one that faces an enormous threat from poachers. The finding indicated that the seven strata surveyed had different wildlife density and snaring intensity. Areas of the park adjacent to highways, trans-national borders, ranches and town strata had high wildlife snaring pressure. There was a significant difference between snare size and habitat type but total numbers of snares across habitats were not significantly different. The total wildlife species encountered were influenced by habitat types. Regression analysis between snare density and security patrol effort did not show any trend. There was no significant difference in snare density as the distance increased from the park border. Conservation agencies and volunteer patrol teams specialising in snare collection should intensify their patrol efforts in areas of the park around highways, trans-national borders, ranches and town.

Information Sources and Knowledge about Chronic Wasting Disease in Colorado and Wisconsin

This research note examines hunters' and non-hunters' information sources and knowledge about chronic wasting disease (CWD). Data were obtained from surveys of Colorado (n = 1,315) and Wisconsin (n = 360) resident hunters, and resident non-hunters in Wisconsin (n = 253). In response to true/false knowledge statements about CWD, 32% of Wisconsin hunters, 40% of Wisconsin non-hunters, and 44% of Colorado hunters failed to answer at least half of the statements correctly. The most effective sources at improving Wisconsin hunters' CWD knowledge were the Department of Natural Resources (WDNR) website, WDNR secretary column, and local newspapers. The WDNR newsletter was the only source that improved Wisconsin non-hunters' CWD knowledge. In Colorado, effective sources included newspapers and the Colorado Division of Wildlife (CDOW) website and hunting regulations brochure. Understanding relationships among commonly used and effective sources of CWD information may allow wildlife agencies to better inform and educate their publics.

The value of a long-term bushmeat market dataset as an indicator of system dynamics

Data on prices and quantities of wildlife on sale in markets are increasingly being used as indicators of the sustainability of bushmeat hunting, being relatively easy to collect. However, it is not clear how much can actually be inferred from trends in such data. This study analyses changes in price, quantity, method of capture and kill location of bushmeat species entering the Atwemonom bushmeat market in the city of Kumasi (Ghana) over the period 1987–2002, using data collected by an official of the Ghana Wildlife Department. The analysis was confined to the seven most commonly traded species and to the open season only, in order to maximize the reliability of the data. Over the period, there was an increase in real bushmeat prices, in the proportion of animals killed by means other than guns and the trade made up by grasscutters (Thryonomys swinderianus). A higher proportion of animals originated from distant areas, rather than from villages close to Kumasi. These trends are compatible both with depletion of the bushmeat resource and with an economically rational response by hunters to increasing prices. The analysis highlights both the utility and the limitations of detailed long-term market data as a tool for assessing the sustainability of wildlife hunting. Data on the origin of animals sold in the market and the gear type are necessary but not sufficient for understanding the drivers of changes in price and quantity of species on sale in markets; without complementary detailed local data on hunter behaviour, market data are of little value.